Review and Analysis: Evaluation of the Impacts and Consequences of Using Agricultural Herbicides as Military Chemical Weapons in Second Indochina War

The legacy of the human misery caused by the application of the herbicides including Agent Purple and Agent Orange contaminated with unknown amounts of dioxin TCDD and Agent Blue, the arsenic-based herbicide, sprayed over the jungles, rice fields, and hamlets of Vietnam is still haunting us today. Why did this happen? Could it have been prevented? Was it necessary United States military strategy? Was it an intentional decision to inflict this blight on the enemy soldiers and the Vietnamese, Cambodian, and Laotian civilians, to poison their land and cause generations of harm? Alternatively, was it an unpreventable accident in the march of military history? What patterns in the U.S. government’s thought process could be identified as the cause, which led to the decision to use these herbicides as tactical chemical weapons? If the introduction of herbicide (chemical) weapons had not been made, would the outcome of the Vietnam War and the Secret Wars in Laos and Cambodia have been any different? The objective of this treatise is to outline the role of world events and backgrounds and the role of the leaders, U.S. military, CIA, USDA, U.S. State Department, the U.S. President appointed Ambassadors to Vietnam and Laos, chemical companies, and President Diệm’s Republic of Vietnam (RVN) government and military. Their collective advice led to the decision to use herbicides as military and environmental chemical weapons in the Second Indochina War. Were the National interests achieved by U.S. military strategy in the RVN using herbicide weapons worth the long-term environmental and human health consequences in Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos? Did it impact the outcome of the Second Indochina War?

Pyramiding of multiple genes generates rapeseed introgression lines with clubroot and herbicide resistance, high oleic acid content, and early maturity

Clubroot and herbicide resistance,high oleic acid(OA)content,and early maturity are targets of rapeseed(Brassica napus L.)breeding.The objective of this study was to develop new male-fertility restorer lines by pyramiding favorable genes to improve these traits simultaneously.Seven elite alleles for the four traits were introduced into the restorer line 621R by speed breeding with marker-assisted and phenotypic selection.Six introgression lines(ILs)were developed with four-to seven-gene combinations and crossed with two elite parents to develop hybrids.All ILs and their corresponding hybrids displayed high resistance to both clubroot pathotype 4 and sulfonylurea herbicides.Three ILs and their hybrids showed large increases in OA contents and four showed earlier maturity.These new ILs may be useful in rapeseed hybrid breeding for the target traits.

Effects of a glyphosate-based herbicide on the oestrous cycle of rats

Objective:To determine the effects of a glyphosate-based herbicide on the oestrous cycle of rats.Methods:Fifteen adult Wistar rats were randomly divided into three groups.Group A served as the control group,while groups B and C received 250 and 500 mg/kg of glyphosate-based herbicide orally for five oestrous cycles,respectively.Stages of oestrous cycle,oestrous cycle index,length of cycle,oestrous cycle ratio,serum estradiol and progesterone levels were determined.Results:The proestrus and oestrus stages of the glyphosate-based herbicide groups increased significantly(P<0.05),although proestrus in group C was not significantly different from the control group.There was a significant decrease in the metestrus and diestrus of the glyphosate-based herbicide groups(P<0.05).The oestrous cycle index of the glyphosate-based herbicide treated groups was altered;this was characterized by an increase in the oestrous index and a decrease in the metestrus and diestrus indexes.The proestrus index of group B increased,while that of group C decreased.The length of the cycle of the glyphosate-based herbicide groups significantly decreased from the 1st and 3rd week till the end of the study in groups B and C,respectively(P<0.05).There was a significant increase in the oestrous cycle ratio of the glyphosate-based herbicide groups compared to the control group(P<0.05).Though the estradiol and progesterone levels of the glyphosate-based herbicide groups increased and decreased,respectively,they were not significantly different from the control group.Conclusions:Glyphosate-based herbicide at the doses of 250 and 500 mg/kg can alter the pattern of the oestrous cycle in rats.

Evaluation of Pre-Emergence and Post-Emergence Herbicides for Weed Management in Miscanthus sacchariflorus and Miscanthus sinensis

Miscanthus,is a promising bioenergy crop,considered superior to other bioenergy crops because of its higher water and nutrient use efficiency,cold tolerance,and higher production of biomass.Broadleaf weeds and grass weeds,cause major problems in the Miscanthus field.A field experiment was conducted in 2018 and 2019,to assess the effects of pre-emergence(alachlor and napropamide)and post-emergence herbicides(nicosulfuron,dicamba,bentazon,and glufosinate ammonium)on broadleaf and grass weeds in M.sinensis and M.sacchariflorus fields.The weed control efficiency and phytotoxicity of pre-and post-emergence herbicides were evaluated at 30 days after treatment(DAT)and compared to those of the control plots.The results showed wide variations in the susceptibility of the weed species to the treated herbicides.Treatment with nicosulfuron 40 g.a.i.ha^(-1) provided the most effective overall weed control(with 10%visual injury),without affecting the height and biomass of neither Miscanthus species in the field.Post-emergence herbicides such as glufosinate ammonium 400 g.a.i.ha^(-1) and dicamba 482 g.a.i.ha^(-1) were effective and inhibited the growth and density of the majority of weeds to a 100%;however,they showed significant phytotoxicity(toxicity scale of 1-10)to both species of Miscanthus.The application of glufosinate ammonium caused severe injuries to the foliar region(90%visual injury)of both Miscanthus sps.Comparatively,M.sinensis showed a slightly higher tolerance to the herbicides nicosulfuron,bentazon and napropamide with 10%visual injury at the recommended dose than M.sacchariflorus.The present study clearly showed that infestation of broadleaf and grass weeds in Miscanthus fields can cause significant damage to the growth and biomass of Miscanthus and applying pre-emergence and post-emergence herbicides effectively controls the high infestation of these weeds.

Effects of Different Herbicides on Weed Control in Alfalfa Field

[Objectives]The paper was to systematically study the technology of weed control in alfalfa field.[Methods]Reviving alfalfa field and newly sown alfalfa field after emergence were selected,and the effects of different herbicides on weed control and alfalfa yield were discussed.[Results]The optimal herbicides after alfalfa reviving were 5%imazethapyr and 10%imazethapyr,and the optimal dosages were 1.5 and 1.05 L/hm 2,respectively.The optimal herbicides after emergence of newly born alfalfa were 5%imazethapyr and 10%imazethapyr,and the optimal dosages were 1.5 and 0.75 L/hm 2,respectively.[Conclusions]This study will provide a technical support for high quality production of alfalfa.

A nonsynonymous mutation in an acetolactate synthase gene (Gh_D10G1253) is required for tolerance to imidazolinone herbicides in cotton

Background Herbicide tolerance in crops enables them to survive when lethal doses of herbicides are applied to surrounding weeds.Herbicide-tolerant crops can be developed through transgenic approaches or traditional mutagenesis approaches.At present,no transgenic herbicide tolerant cotton have been commercialized in China due to the genetically-modified organism(GMO)regulation law.We aim to develop a non-transgenic herbicide-tolerant cotton through ethyl methanesulfonate(EMS)mutagenesis,offering an alternative choice for weed management.Results Seeds of an elite cotton cultivar Lumianyan 37(Lu37)were treated with EMS,and a mutant Lu37-1 showed strong tolerance to imidazolinone(IMI)herbicides was identified.A novel nonsynonymous substitution mutation Ser642Asn at acetolactate synthase(ALS)(Gh_D10G1253)in Lu37-1 mutant line was found to be the potential cause to the IMI herbicides tolerance in cotton.The Ser642Asn mutation in ALS did not present among the genomes of natural Gossypium species.Cleaved amplified polymorphic sequence(CAPS)markers were developed to identify the ALS mutant allele.The Arabidopsis overexpressing the mutanted ALS also showed high tolerance to IMI herbicides.Conclusion The nonsynonymous substitution mutation Ser642Asn of the ALS gene Gh_D10G1253 is a novel identi-fied mutation in cotton.This substitution mutation has also been identified in the orthologous ALS genes in other crops.This mutant ALS allele can be used to develop IMI herbicide-tolerant crops via a non-transgenic or transgenic approach.

Limiting Factors and Countermeasures for the Development of Biological Herbicides

This paper mainly analyzes the main limiting factors in the development of biological herbicides,such as narrow herbicidal spectrum,vulnerable to environmental impacts,difficulties in preparing dosage forms,difficult separation and low yield of active substances,biological safety,etc.Moreover,countermeasures and suggestions are put forward,including strengthening the study of biological screening of herbicidal activity,microbial metabolites and their use as lead compounds,dosage forms,fungi complex formulation,fungi and herbicide complex formulation,and fermentation technology.

Review and Analysis: Did the United States Transport, Off-Load and Use Commercial 2,4,5-T Herbicides with Unknown Amounts of Dioxin TCDD on Military Base Grounds in Panama Canal Zone between 1948 and 1999?

The 84 km Panama Canal connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans has historically been a strategic waterway for shipping and the location of United States (US) military bases. Since the construction of Lake Gatun reservoir, canal locks and navigation channel through the Isthmus of Panama tropical forests in the 1910s, chemicals, pesticides, and herbicides have been essential for controlling upland and wetland vegetation as well as managing mosquito-borne diseases. Chemicals and pesticides flowed into Lake Gatun via land surface runoff and subsurface drainage either attached to the sediment or in solution during the rainy season. Lake Gatun and the Panama Canal was the drinking water source for most of the civilian and military population living in the Panama Canal Zone. Between 1948 and 1999, US military base commanders had the ability to order, from the Federal Supply Catalog, commercially available herbicide 2,4,5-T with unknown amounts of dioxin TCDD for use on the military base grounds in the Panama Canal Zone. The herbicide 2,4,5-T was transported to Panama Canal Zone ports, including the ports Cristobal on the Caribbean and Balboa on the Pacific, and distributed to the US military bases in Panama by rail or truck. The US National Toxicology Program and the International Agency for the Research on Cancer listed dioxin and TCDD as known human carcinogens. Dioxins are endocrine disrupters and can cause certain chloracne, cancers, developmental and reproductive effects. In 1985, the United States government banned the manufacture of the herbicide 2,4,5-T, with unknown amounts of dioxin TCDD, after it was shown to cause cancer in animals. The objectives of this study are to determine: 1) the fate of dioxin TCDD, a contaminant in the herbicide 2,4,5-T, sprayed on the US military base vegetation in the Panama Canal Zone from 1948 to 1999, 2) the transport of dioxin TCDD rich sediment via soil erosion and overland flow into Lake Gatun and Panama Canal waterways and 3) the human health impacts of dioxin TCDD, a known carcinogen, on US military and Panamanian civilians exposed to dioxin TCDD in the Panama Canal Zone.

Research Progress on Plant Source Herbicide Adjuvants

As the important components of pesticide adjuvants, vegetable oil and its derivative adjuvants will be the focus of future development of herbicide adjuvants due to their superiority in good affinity with plants, strong biological degradability, few risk of damage, environrnental safety and ability to improve the weed control efficient. The research progress and application status of the plant source herbicide adjuvants were summarized, as well as the weeding enhancement mechanism and the effects on the environment and non-target organisms, and the existing problems and development trends were reviewed.

An Overview of Research on Microbial Herbicide

The development of microbial herbicide for weed control has been serious- ly regarded all over the world and has made rapid progress in recent years. This paper presents a comprehensive review on domestic and abroad research progress of microbial herbicide and mainly introduces the microbial herbicide products and mi- crobial sources with commercialization potential, and then proposes an outlook for their development tendency and application prospect.

Chemical Control of Herbicide Monosulfuron Plus Propazine 44% WP against Weeds in Millet Fields and Study on Factors Influencing Yield of Millet

[Objective] The paper was to resolve the poor efficacy or phytotoxicity problems in promotion of herbicide monosulfuron plus propazine 44% WP. [Method] Using orthogonal test and Duncan＇s new multiple range statistical analysis with four factors four levels and three factors two levels, the effects of factors such as herbi- cide dose, irrigation water volume, quality of soil preparation and soil moisture content on chemical control of monosulfuron plus propazine 44% WP against weeds and millet yield were compared in the test. [Result] Seven factors all had great impact on control effect of monosulfuron plus propazine 44% WP against weeds, of which her- bicide dose, irrigation water volume, quality of soil preparation and soil moisture content were the most important factors affecting millet yield. According to millet yield and economic benefit, the optimal scheme to ensure safe, efficient and economic control of monosulfuron plus propazine 44% WP against weeds was as follows： the dose of monosulfuron plus propazine 44% WP was 1 800 g/hm2, the soil was treat- ed after sowing and before seedling emergence; the soil should be smooth and sol- id; the soil moisture should reach 15%; the fields should not be irrigated after herbi- cide application, and the damage of weeds in millet fields could be effectively con- trolled within 45 d during high efficacy duration, especially the damage of dicotyledonous weeds. [Conclusion] The study provided useful information for comprehensive technology of weeds control and ensuring high yield and good harvest of millet.

Glyphosate-Resistant Giant Ragweed(Ambrosia trifida L.):2,4-D Dose Response and Control with Postemergence Herbicides in Soybean

Glyphosate resistant giant ragweed is an increasing problem in glyphosate resistant cropping systems in southwestern Ontario. The postemergence herbicides registered for use in soybean in Ontario do not provide consistent control of glyphosate resistant giant ragweed. There is limited research on the lowest effective rate of 2,4-D for the control of glyphosate resistant giant ragweed. Consequently, the objectives of this study were a) to determine the efficacy of herbicides applied postemergence for the control of glyphosate resistant giant ragweed in glyphosate resistant soybean, and b) to determine the lowest effective rate of 2,4-D for the control of glyphosate-resistant giant ragweed. Ten postemergence herbicide combinations and seven rates of 2,4-D were evaluated in field studies conducted in 2011 and 2012 at six locations confirmed with glyphosate-resistant giant ragweed. The post emergence herbicides evaluated did not provide acceptable/consistent control. Of the herbicides evaluated, glyphosate plus cloransulam-methyl provided 26% to 70% control 8 WAA of glyphosate resistant giant ragweed, which was the best of the herbicides combinations evaluated. The doses of 2,4-D required to reduce giant ragweed shoot dry weight by 50, 80 and 95% were 142, 310 and 1048 g a.e. ha-1, respectively.

Development of herbicide resistance genes and their application in rice

Rice is one of the most important food crops in the world.Weeds seriously affect the rice yield and grain quality.In recent years,there are tremendous progresses in the research and application of herbicideresistant genes in rice worldwide.This article reviews the working mechanisms of six herbicides(glyphosate,glufosinate,acetolactate synthase inhibitor herbicides,acetyl-Co A carboxylase inhibitor herbicides,hydroxyhenylpyruvate dioxygenase(HPPD)inhibitor herbicides and dinitroaniline herbicides),the resistance mutations of the corresponding herbicide-target genes,and the herbicide detoxification mechanisms by non-target genes.Examples are provided on herbicide-resistant rice materials obtained by transformation of exogenous resistance genes,by artificial mutagenesis and mutant screening,and by modifying the target genes through gene editing.This paper also introduces the current application of herbicide-resistant rice,points out problems that may be caused by utilization of herbicide resistant rice and solutions to the problems,and discusses the future prospects for the development of herbicideresistant rice.

Trp_(548)Met mutation of acetolactate synthase in rice confers resistance to a broad spectrum of ALS-inhibiting herbicides

Herbicide resistance in crop plants is valuable for integrated weed management in agriculture. Herbicide resistant rice, in particular, is important to management of weedy rice, a close relative of cultivated rice and a noxious weed prevalent in rice fields that remains challenging to farmers worldwide. Herbicide resistant plants can be obtained through transgenic approach or by mutagenesis of regular plant and screening of mutants with elevated resistance to herbicide. In this study, we conducted ethyl methyl sulfonate mutagenesis(EMS) to elite indica cultivar Huanghuazhan(HHZ) and screened for mutants resistant to imazapic, a herbicide that can inhibit the acetolactate synthase(ALS) in plants. We obtained three mutants of Os ALS gene that have not been reported previously in rice. One of the mutants, with Trp_(548) changed to Met(W_(548)M), was analyzed in more details in this study. This mutation had no negative effect on the plant physiology and morphology as well as rice yield. Compared with the imidazolinone-resistant mutant S_(627)N(Ser_(627) changed to Asn) that has been deployed for Clearfield rice development, W_(548)M mutant showed high levels of resistance to a broad spectrum of five families of ALSinhibiting herbicides, in addition to a higher level of resistance to herbicides of the imidazolinone family.The herbicide-resistance was stably inherited by crossing into other rice lines. Thus, the W_(548)M mutation provides a valuable resource for breeding of herbicide resistant rice and weed management.

Control of Glyphosate and Acetolactate Synthase Resistant Common Ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia L.) in Soybean (Glycine max L.) with Preplant Herbicides

A population of common ragweed in Ontario was confirmed to be resistant to glyphosate in 2011. Group 2 [acetolactate synthase (ALS) inhibitors] resistant common ragweed was first confirmed in Ontario in 2000. Previously, glyphosate provided excellent control of common ragweed in glyphosate resistant soybean but with the confirmation of glyphosate resistant (GR) common ragweed, alternative herbicides need to be evaluated. Eight field trials with preplant herbicides were completed over two years (2013 and 2014) in fields with confirmed GR common ragweed. Tank-mixes of glyphosate and linuron or metribuzin provided 88% - 99% and 86% - 98% control 4 weeks after application (WAA) and 80% - 92% and 80% - 95% control 8 WAA, respectively. However, these herbicides also had among the highest environmental impact of the herbicides tested. Based on the results of these studies, GR common ragweed can be controlled with residual herbicides when applied preemergence in soybean. Currently, there are no post emergence herbicides that provide adequate control of GR common ragweed, therefore, preemergence herbicides with residual are essential for full season control.

Glyphosate-based herbicide: a risk factor for demyelinating conditions of the peripheral nervous system?

Glyphosate is a broad-spectrum herbicide originally introduced to the market in 1974 by the agrochemical company Monsanto. More than 40 years down the line, glyphosate has become one of the most economically meaningful herbicides, with a global use of more than 1.8 million pounds in 2014 (Benbrook, 2016). In non resistant plants, glyphosate is widely believed to exert its herbicidal effect via inhibition of the 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase, an enzyme of the shikimate pathway required for the biosynthesis of aromatic amino acids in plants and most microorganisms such as fungi, bacteria and some protozoans.

Control Effects of 3 Kinds of Herbicides against Weeds in Dogbane (Apocynum venetum) Field

[ Objective] The paper was to explore the control effects of 3 kinds of herbicides against weeds in dogbane （Apocynum venetum） field. [ Method ] Using haloxyfop-R-mithyl and quizalofop-ethyl EC specifically killing monagenns gramineous weeds and chipton specifically killing dicotyledonous broad-leaf weeds, the control test against weeds in 2-year-old dogbane field was carried out. [ Result ] Haloxyfop-R-mithyl had good control effect against gramincous weeds, and its control effect against both barnyard weed （ Echinochloa crusgalli） and green bristleweed （ Setaria viridis ） was greater than 35.0% ; the control effects of quizalofop- ethyl EC against barnyard weed and green bristleweed were 14.8% and 28.6%, respectively; chipt0n had good control effect against Chenopodium album, and the control effect reached 30.8%. Moreover, 3 herbicides did not cause damage to dogbane. [ Conclusion] The study provide theoretical basis for completing cultivation technique of dogbane.

Control Effect Evaluation of Herbicides for Malignant Weed Nut Grass in Sugarcane Field

In order to screen herbicides with ideal safety characteristics to control malignant weed nut grass in sugarcane field, 20% thifensulfuron methyl WP and 65% MCPA·ametryne·diuron WP were selected for the field efficacy trial. The results showed that 20% thifensulfuron methyl WP and 65% MCPA·ametryne·diuron WP had good control effect on nut grass. The optimum dosage of 20% thifensulfuron methyl WP and 65% MCPA.ametryne-diuron WP was 1 125 g/hm^2 （effective ingredients 225 g） and 3 150 g/hm^2 （effective ingredients 2 047.5 g）, respectively. These two herbicides should be dissolved in 675 kg water per hectare and applied in the vigorous growth period of nut grass （height 10-15 cm） with oriented stem leaf spraying. The control effect after 15 days could be above 87.9%.

Primary Research on Screening of Herbicides in Summer Sowing Broomcorn Millet Field

[ Objective] The paper was to select the suitable herbicides for summer sowing breomcom millet and reduce labor costs. [ Method ] More than 20 kinds of herbicides commonly used in fields had been preliminarily screened, and six kinds of herbicides were selected for further field herbicidal effect experiment. [ Re- suit] The herbicidal effects of 2,4-D butylate, MCPA-Na, tribenuren, 2,4-D isooctyl ester and monosulfuren plus prepasine against Pharbitis nil （ lAan. ） Choisy, Amaranth mangostanus L. and Portulaca oleracea L. were greater than 70%, and the weed control effect on fresh weight by leaf and stem spray of tribenu- ran and MCPA-Na were greater than 96% after herbicide application for 20 d. [ Concluslon] The study provides the guidance for production of breomcom millet.

Differential Susceptibility of <i>Conyza bonariensis</i>Biotypes to Glyphosate and ALS-Inhibiting Herbicides in Argentina

The aim of this study was to compare control of three stages biotypes (rosette, bolting, and repro- ductive stage) of Conyza bonariensis glyphosate susceptible biotype (S) and tolerant biotype (T) to glyphosate with glyphosate and mixtures of acetolactate synthase (ALS)-inhibiting. For glyphosate, the dose-response curves confirmed that injury of the biotype T relative to biotype S was signifi- cantly lower for both rosette and bolting stages. Resistance index (RI) for this herbicide was approximately 4 for both weed stages. At bolting, for both biotypes doses much higher than the recommended dose were required. For acetolactate synthase (ALS)-inhibiting herbicides, at the rosette stage, control of both biotypes was excellent with doses significantly lower than the recommended rate. All herbicides within this group showed a very low I50 relative to the recommended rate. These results indicate that biotypes difficult to control with glyphosate at the rosette and bolting stage may be controlled using acetolacte synthase (ALS)-inhibiting herbicides. Control for the reproductive stage was poor. A management program based on the combination of glyphosate with pre- and post-emergence acetolactate synthase (ALS) herbicides may be effective to control the weed.