The Beishan underground research laboratory for geological disposal of high-level radioactive waste in China:Planning, site selection,site characterization and in situ tests

With the rapid development of nuclear power in China, the disposal of high-level radioactive waste（HLW） has become an important issue for nuclear safety and environmental protection. Deep geological disposal is internationally accepted as a feasible and safe way to dispose of HLW, and underground research laboratories（URLs） play an important and multi-faceted role in the development of HLW repositories. This paper introduces the overall planning and the latest progress for China＇s URL. On the basis of the proposed strategy to build an area-specific URL in combination with a comprehensive evaluation of the site selection results obtained during the last 33 years, the Xinchang site in the Beishan area,located in Gansu Province of northwestern China, has been selected as the final site for China＇s first URL built in granite. In the process of characterizing the Xinchang URL site, a series of investigations,including borehole drilling,geological mapping, geophysical surveying,hydraulic testing and in situ stress measurements, has been conducted. The investigation results indicate that the geological,hydrogeological, engineering geological and geochemical conditions of the Xinchang site are very suitable for URL construction. Meanwhile, to validate and develop construction technologies for the Beishan URL, the Beishan exploration tunnel（BET）, which is a 50-m-deep facility in the Jiujing sub-area, has been constructed and several in situ tests, such as drill-and-blast tests, characterization of the excavation damaged zone（EDZ）, and long-term deformation monitoring of surrounding rocks, have been performed in the BET. The methodologies and technologies established in the BET will serve for URL construction.According to the achievements of the characterization of the URL site, a preliminary design of the URL with a maximum depth of 560 m is proposed and necessary in situ tests in the URL are planned.

Design and development of large-scale in-situ PRACLAY heater test and horizontal high-level radioactive waste disposal gallery seal test in Belgian HADES

In Belgium,the Boom clay was selected as a potential host formation for the disposal of high-level radioactive waste（HLW）.To demonstrate the suitability of Boom clay for bearing thermal load induced by the HLW,a large-scale in-situ heater test,called PRACLAY heater test,will be conducted in the underground research laboratory（URL） in Mol.Owing to the limitations of the test（a short period of time compared with that considered in a real repository,different boundary conditions,etc.）,the test is designed to simulate,in a conservative way,the most critical state and phenomena that could occur in the host rock.The PRACLAY gallery was excavated at the end of 2007;the heating phase will begin in 2010 and will last for at least 10 years.The PRACLAY gallery itself leaves an opportunity to study the possibilities of sealing a disposal drift in Boom clay and testing the feasibility of hydraulic cut-off of any preferential pathway to the main access gallery through the excavation damage zone（EDZ） and the lining with a seal in a horizontal drift（horizontal seal）.Indeed,this is a generic problem for all deep geological disposal facilities for HLW.An annular seal made of compacted swelling bentonite will be installed in the front of the heated part of the PRACLAY gallery for these purposes.This paper provides detailed considerations on the thermo-hydro-mechanical（THM） boundary conditions for the design of the PRACLAY heater test and the seal test with the support of numerical calculations.It is believed that these important items considered in the PRACLAY heater test design also constitute key issues for the repository design.The outcome of the PRACLAY heater test will be an important milestone for the Belgian repository design.

High-level radioactive waste disposal in China: update 2010

For geological disposal of high-level radioactive waste （HLW）, the Chinese policy is that the spent nuclear fuel （SNF） should be reprocessed first, followed by vitrification and final disposal. The preliminary repository concept is a shaft-tunnel model, located in saturated zones in granite, while the final waste form for disposal is vitrified high-level radioactive waste. In 2006, the government published a long-term research and development （R＆D） plan for geological disposal of high-level radioactive waste. The program consists of three steps： （1） laboratory studies and site selection for a HLW repository （2006-2020）; （2） underground in-situ tests （2021-2040）; and （3） repository construction （2041-2050） followed by operation. With the support of China Atomic Energy Authority, comprehensive studies are underway and some progresses are made. The site characterization, including deep borehole drilling, has been performed at the most potential Beishan site in Gansu Province, Northwestern China. The data from geological and hydrogeological investigations, in-situ stress and permeability measurements of rock mass are presented in this paper. Engineered barrier studies are concentrated on the Gaomiaozi bentonite. A mock-up facility, which is used to study the thermo-hydro-mechano-chemical （THMC） properties of the bentonite, is under construction. Several projects on mechanical properties of Beishan granite are also underway. The key scientific challenges faced with HLW disposal are also discussed.

Main outcomes from in situ thermo-hydro-mechanical experiments programme to demonstrate feasibility of radioactive high-level waste disposal in the Callovo-Oxfordian claystone

In the context of radioactive waste disposal,an underground research laboratory(URL)is a facility in which experiments are conducted to demonstrate the feasibility of constructing and operating a radioactive waste disposal facility within a geological formation.The Meuse/Haute-Marne URL is a sitespecific facility planned to study the feasibility of a radioactive waste disposal in the Callovo-Oxfordian(COx)claystone.The thermo-hydro-mechanical(THM)behaviour of the host rock is significant for the design of the underground nuclear waste disposal facility and for its long-term safety.The French National Radioactive Waste Management Agency(Andra)has begun a research programme aiming to demonstrate the relevancy of the French high-level waste(HLW)concept.This paper presents the programme implemented from small-scale(small diameter)boreholes to full-scale demonstration experiments to study the THM effects of the thermal transient on the COx claystone and the strategy implemented in this new programme to demonstrate and optimise current disposal facility components for HLW.It shows that the French high-level waste concept is feasible and working in the COx claystone.It also exhibits that,as for other plastic clay or claystone,heating-induced pore pressure increases and that the THM behaviour is anisotropic.

On area-specific underground research laboratory for geological disposal of high-level radioactive waste in China

Underground research laboratories （URLs）, including ＂generic URLs＂ and ＂site-specific URLs＂, are un- derground facilities in which characterisation, testing, technology development, and/or demonstration activities are carried out in support of the development of geological repositories for high-level radioactive waste （HLW） disposal. In addition to the generic URL and site-specific URL, a concept of ＂areaspecific URL＂, or the third type of URL, is proposed in this paper. It is referred to as the facility that is built at a site within an area that is considered as a potential area for HLW repository or built at a place near the future repository site, and may be regarded as a precursor to the development of a repository at the site. It acts as a ＂generic URL＂, but also acts as a ＂site-specific URL＂ to some extent. Considering the current situation in China, the most suitable option is to build an ＂area-specific URL＂ in Beishan area, the first priority region for China＇s high-level waste repository. With this strategy, the goal to build China＇s URL by 2020 mav be achieved, but the time left is limited.

Key Scientific Challenges in Geological Disposal of High Level Radioactive Waste

The geological disposal of high level radioactive waste is a challenging task facing the scientific and technical world.This paper introduces the latest progress of high level radioactive disposal programs in the world,and discusses the following key scientific challenges:(1)precise prediction of the evolution of a repository site;(2)characteristics of deep geological environment;(3)behaviour of deep rock mass,groundwater and engineering material under coupled conditions(intermediate to high temperature,geostress,hydraulic,chemical,biological and radiation process,etc);(4)geochemical behaviour of transuranic radionuclides with low concentration and its migration with groundwater;and(5)safety assessment of disposal system.Several large-scale research projects and several hot topics related with high-level waste disposal are also introduced.

Numerical analysis of thermal process in the near field around vertical disposal of high-level radioactive waste

For deep geological disposal of high-level radioactive waste(HLW)in granite,the temperature on the HLW canisters is commonly designed to be lower than100fiC.This criterion dictates the dimension of the repository.Based on the concept of HLW disposal in vertical boreholes,thermal process in the nearfield(host rock and buffer)surrounding HLW canisters has been simulated by using different methods.The results are drawn as follows:(a)the initial heat power of HLW canisters is the most important and sensitive parameter for evolution of temperaturefield;(b)the thermal properties and variations of the host rock,the engineered buffer,and possible gaps between canister and buffer and host rock are the additional key factors governing the heat transformation;(c)the gaps width and thefilling by water or air determine the temperature offsets between them.

Study on the residence time of deep groundwater for high-level radioactive waste geological disposal

Residence time of deep groundwater is one of the most important parameters in safety and performance assessment for high-level radioactive waste geological disposal. In this study, we collected the deep groundwater samples of Jijicao in Gansu Beishan pre-selected region. The deep groundwater residence time at two depths estimated by Helium-4 accumulation method were 3.8 ka and 5.0 ka respectively upon measurement and calculation, which indicates that the deep groundwater is not derived from the deep crust circulation process. Hence, deep groundwater is featured with long residence time as well as slow circulation and update rate, and such features are conductive to the safe disposal of high-level radioactive waste.

High-Level Nuclear Wastes and the Environment: Analyses of Challenges and Engineering Strategies

The main objective of this paper is to analyze the current status of high-level nuclear waste disposal along with presentation of practical perspectives about the environmental issues involved. Present disposal designs and concepts are analyzed on a scientific basis and modifications to existing designs are proposed from the perspective of environmental safety. A new concept of a chemical heat sink is introduced for the removal of heat emitted due to radioactive decay in the spent nuclear fuel or high-level radioactive waste, and thermal spikes produced by radiation in containment materials. Mainly, UO2 and metallic U are used as fuels in nuclear reactors. Spent nuclear fuel contains fission products and transuranium elements which would remain radioactive for 104 to 108years. Essential concepts and engineering strategies for spent nuclear fuel disposal are described. Conceptual designs are described and discussed considering the long-term radiation and thermal activity of spent nuclear fuel. Notions of physical and chemical barriers to contain nuclear waste are highlighted. A timeframe for nuclear waste disposal is proposed and time-line nuclear waste disposal plan or policy is described and discussed.

Clays in radioactive waste disposal

Clays and argillites are considered in some countries as possible host rocks for nuclear waste disposal at great depth.The use of compacted swelling clays as engineered barriers is also considered within the framework of the multi-barrier concept.In relation to these concepts,various research programs have been conducted to assess the thermo-hydro-mechanical properties of radioactive waste disposal at great depth.After introducing the concepts of waste isolation developed in Belgium,France and Switzerland,the paper describes the retention and transfer properties of engineered barriers made up of compacted swelling clays in relation to microstructure features.Some features of the thermo-mechanical behaviors of three possible geological barriers,namely Boom clay（Belgium）,Callovo-Oxfordian clay（France） and Opalinus clay（Switzerland）,are then described,including the retention and transfer properties,volume change behavior,shear strength and thermal aspects.

Design and validation of the THMC China-Mock-Up test on buffer material for HLW disposal

According to the preliminary concept of the high-level radioactive waste （HLW） repository in China, a large-scale mock-up facility, named China-Mock-Up was constructed in the laboratory of Beijing Research Institute of Uranium Geology （BRIUG）. A heater, which simulates a container of radioactive waste, is placed inside the compacted Gaomiaozi （GMZ）-Na-bentonite blocks and pellets. Water inflow through the barrier from its outer surface is used to simulate the intake of groundwater. The numbers of water injection pipes, injection pressure and the insulation layer were determined based on the nu- merical modeling simulations. The current experimental data of the facility are herein analyzed. The experiment is intended to evaluate the thermo-hydro-mechano-chemical （THMC） processes occurring in the compacted bentonite-buffer during the early stage of HLW disposal and to provide a reliable database for numerical modeling and further investigation of engineered barrier system （EBS）, and the design of HLW repository.

法国ANDRA放射性废物地质处置可行性研究综述

介绍15a来法国国家放射性废物管理局(ANDRA)为研究地下处置放射性废物而开展的主要研究成果,实验室试验、现场试验和数值模拟结果均表明:ANDRA所研究的在法国东部埋深500m、厚达130m的泥岩岩层具备永久处置核废料的地质条件,从地质和力学角度上介绍该泥岩岩层一些主要特征,并对ANDRA提出的地质处置总体设计方案和不同类型废物处置单元进行系统论述。

Temperature Effects on Unsaturated Hydraulic Property of Bentonite-Sand Buffer Backfilling Mixtures

The influence of temperature on the engineered properties of bentonite-sand mixtures （B/S） is of major concern in the design of engineered barriers in underground repositories for high-level radioactive waste disposal. We experimentally studied the influence of temperature on soil unsaturated hydraulic properties related to water holding capacity and permeability of GMZ B/S in China. The vapor equilibrium method and water infiltration apparatus were used to measure the soil water characteristic curve （SWCC） and unsaturated hydraulic conductivity （k）. The results show that the SWCC under different temperatures from 20℃ to 60 ℃ tends to be the same. Temperature influence on unsaturated permeability is more relevant at low suctions, no clear effect is detected below a degree of saturation of 74%, and experimental data show that temperature dependence on unsaturated permeability is small.

Influence of Heating and Water Exposure on Liquid Limit of Bentonite

Bentonite has been considered as the buffer material for embedding canisters with high-level radioactive waste(HLW)in the deep geology repositories. GMZ bentonite deposit which is located in Xinghe County,Inner Mongolia has been proposed as buffer/backfill material for HLW repository in China. Liquid limit of natural Na-bentonite GMZ01 and commercial Na-bentonite MX80 which were previously put in the oven at 80℃and 95℃,and exposed to water for different times were measured.The liquid limit of GMZ01 increased slightly at the beginning, and then decreased as the heating time increased.

Influence of heating and water-exposure on the liquid limits of GMZ01 and MX80 bentonites

Bentonite has been considered as a buffer material for embedding canisters with high-level radioactive waste（HLW） in deep geological repositories.GMZ bentonite deposit,located in Xinghe County,Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region,China was proposed as a buffer/backfill material for HLW repository in China.The liquid limits of natural Na-bentonite GMZ01 and commercial Na-bentonite MX80,which are previously heated at 80 ℃ and 95 ℃,respectively,and exposed to water for different times are measured.It is observed that the liquid limit of GMZ01 increases slightly at the beginning,and then decreases as the heating time increases,while the liquid limit of MX80 decreases with the heating time.The liquid limits of both GMZ01 and MX80 decrease with increasing water-exposure time.After the samples are heated at 80℃and 95 ℃ for several months,the mineralogical composition of GMZ01 does not exhibit evident change,whereas MX80 experiences some changes.In addition,the chemical composition,cation exchange capacity（CEC） and exchangeable cation of all the samples do not change significantly.

围压和裂隙倾角对花岗岩力学行为的影响研究

含裂隙围岩的力学行为对高放废物地质处置库的长期稳定和安全至关重要。为研究围压和裂隙倾角对花岗岩围岩力学行为的影响,以完整花岗岩和含不同倾角贯通单裂隙的花岗岩为研究对象,开展了单轴压缩和三轴压缩试验研究。结果表明:0~10 MPa围压范围内,倾角30°和60°裂隙花岗岩分别发生了穿裂隙面破坏和沿裂隙面滑移破坏;随围压升高,倾角45°裂隙花岗岩由复合破坏转变为穿裂隙面破坏,后又在10 MPa围压条件下再次转变为倾斜“Z”字型裂纹的复合破坏。围压的存在制约了预制裂隙面的劣化作用。三轴压缩条件下低倾角裂隙花岗岩的抗压强度及变形发展曲线与完整花岗岩的结果相近,试样峰值破坏时的轴向应变在围压0,2,5,10MPa条件下分别约为0.38%,0.49%,0.59%和0.75%。沿裂隙面滑移破坏试样的抗压强度以及峰值破坏时的轴向应变均显著低于穿裂隙面破坏试样的相关结果,且其抗压强度与试验前后裂隙面的分形维数差值符合幂函数增长关系。

Long-term safety analysis and model validation through URL research

In Germany, all types of radioactive wastes will be disposed of in deep geological repositories. While a repository for low-level radioactive waste （LLW） has recently been licensed, different host rock formations are considered for disposal of heat producing high-level waste （HLW）. The latter includes directly disposed spent fuel （SF） and vitrified waste from its reprocessing. Different canisters and disposal concepts are considered for spent fuel disposal, i.e. thick-walled iron casks in horizontal drifts or thin-walled BSK3 steel casks in vertical boreholes. GRS is the leading expert institution in Germany concerning nuclear safety and waste management. For the recent 30 years, GRS has developed and continuously improves a set of computer codes, which allow assessing the performance and the long-term safety of repositories in various host rocks （salt, clay or granite） adopting different technical options. Advanced methods for deterministic as well as probabilistic assessments are available. To characterize the host rocks and backfill/buffer materials and to develop disposal technologies, comprehensive laboratory experiments and a large number of in-situ tests have been performed at GRS＇ geo-laboratory and underground research laboratories in different host formations. Thermo-hydro-mechanico-chemical （THMC） processes occurring in the host rocks and engineered barrier systems are numerically simulated. The paper presents an overview of GRS＇ work highlighting important results of performance assessment （PA） studies for both the salt and clay options. Also, recent results of in-situ investigations and laboratory studies are presented together with modeling results. Special emphasis is dedicated to the consideration of coupled THM processes which are of relevance in PA.

膨润土砌体墙受压性能及其本构模型的构建

我国高放地质处置库“三步走”战略稳步推进,研究缓冲/回填材料砌体结构力学性能及其破坏特性,可为缓冲/回填材料砌体结构的设计,以及砌块的地面堆砌储存提供基础数据。本文采用合适的压制路径将高庙子钠基膨润土粉末压制成砌块,并采用干砌方法堆砌成砌体墙,设计并进行了砌块单元间界面性能试验和轴心抗压试验,得到了砌块单元间界面剪切强度与剪切位移关系,分析了砌体墙应力-应变曲线和破坏形态。试验结果表明,砌体墙变形破坏经历特性变形、局部裂纹扩展、竖向裂纹贯通、失稳破坏和残余变形几个阶段。砌体墙的第一条裂隙出现在单个砌块单元内部,反映了砌块单元的压制质量是控制砌体墙工程性能的重要影响因素之一。基于试验数据,通过对比分析施楚贤、朱伯龙、TURNSEK和HODGKINSON及仲继清的本构关系发现,在峰前上升曲线段采用试验数据对仲继清模型参数进行修正,获得的理论应力-应变曲线与试验曲线较为吻合。

高放废物处置地下实验室现场试验数据管理顶层设计

我国高放废物地质处置研发已经进入地下实验室建设的关键阶段。在地下实验室建设和运行期间,将开展大量现场试验,这些试验数据具有传输距离长、采集周期长、数据类型多和数据量大等特点,同时数据质量、安全与可追溯性要求高,数据管理难度较大。通过分析我国高放废物地质处置北山地下实验室现场试验数据特点,以iS3智慧数据服务系统为基础,提出现场试验数据管理顶层设计方法,为现场试验和科研工作顺利开展提供重要的数据管理支撑。

我国高放废物地质处置新突破

2019年5月6日,国家原子能机构批复了我国高放废物地质处置地下实验室建设工程立项建议书。2021年6月17日,地下实验室工程正式开工建设,标志着我国高放废物地质处置进入一个新的阶段——地下实验室阶段,实现了新的突破。本文介绍近五年(2019-2024)来我国高放废物地质处置在法律法规、技术标准、场址评价、缓冲材料、工程技术、岩石力学、放射性核素迁移和安全评价等方面取得的新进展,重点介绍北山地下实验室工程建设及研究开发的新进展。