Extracting water body data based on SDWI and threshold segmentation:A case study in permafrost area surrounding Salt Lake in Hoh Xil,Qinghai-Tibet Plateau,China

There are a large number of lakes,rivers,and other natural water bodies distributed in the permafrost area of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau(QTP).The changes in water bodies will affect the distribution of water resources in sur-rounding areas and downstream areas,resulting in environmental impact and bringing potential flood disasters,which will induce more serious issues and problems in alpine and high-altitude areas with a fragile habitat(such as the QTP in China).Generally,effective,reasonable,and scientific monitoring of large-scale water bodies can not only document the changes in water bodies intuitively,but also provide important theoretical reference for subsequent environmental impact prediction,and disaster prevention and mitigation in due course of time.The large-scale water extraction technology derived from the optical remote sensing(RS)image is seriously affected by clouds,bringing about large differences among the extracted water result products.Synthetic aperture radar(SAR)RS technology has the unique advantage characteristics of all-weather,all-day,strong penetration,and not being affected by clouds,which is hopeful in extracting water body data,especially for days with cloudy weather.The data extraction of large-scale water bodies based on SAR images can effectively avoid the errors caused by clouds that become prevalent at present.In this paper,the Hoh Xil Salt Lake on the QTP and its surrounding five lakes are taken as the research objects.The 2-scene Sentinel-1 SAR image data covering the whole area on 22 August 2022 was used to verify the feasibility of extracting water body data in permafrost zones.Furthermore,on 22 August 2022,the wealth here was cloudy,which made the optical RS images,e.g.,Sentinel-2 images full of clouds.The results show that:using the Sentinel-1 image and threshold segmentation method to extract water body data is efficient and effective with excellent results in permafrost areas.Concretely,the Sentinel-1 dual-polarized water index(SDWI),calculated by combining dual vertical–vertical(VV)polarized and verti-cal–horizontal(VH)polarized data is a useful index for water extraction and the result is better than each of the VV or VH polarized images.

Sedimentary Record of the Planation Surface in the Hoh Xil Region of the Northern Tibet Plateau

Miocene marl is the most widespread Tertiary stratigraphic record in the northern Tibet Plateau, termed the Wudaoliang Group in the Hoh Xil region and the correlative Suonahu Formation in the Qiangtang region. The uniform marl overlies red beds of the Eocene-Oligocene Fenghuoshan Group. The Wudaoliang Group is generally 100-400 m thick, but the thickest strata are 700-1300 m, located in the Haidinghu (Maiding Lake) and Tuotuohe (Tuotuo River) regions respectively. Based on observations from eight measured sections and outcrops, the thin-bedded marl, which varies in colour from grey-white to light brown-grey, is explained as a large-scale or serial lacustrine deposit stretching throughout northern Tibet.The Wudaoliang Group commonly crops out on geographic lowland at an average elevation of 4600 m above sea level within the mountain chains, showing concordant summit levels, e.g. the Fenghuoshan and Bairizhajia Mountains. These mountains with a flat ridge are considered to be remains of the palaeo-planation surface. However, the spatial distribution of the Wudaoliang Group is not confined by the current mountain-basin landform configuration. We have observed the Miocene Wudaoliang Group marl exposed on a 5233 m-high mountain peak. The largest difference in height between the current lake level and the mesa crest is 600 m; the maximum dip angle is 25°, but usually below 10°, which is obviously different from the Fenghuoshan Group red beds with moderate to strong structural deformation. The horizon of the Wudaoliang Group thin-bedded marl and its widespread occurrence throughout the northern Tibetan Plateau can only be reasonably inferred to a sedimentary record relevant to the palaeo-planation. Its deposition occurred on primary land floor by erosion at 20 Ma and its bed surface is a typical sign of geomorphic rise and collapse after the erosion.

Paleoclimate Changes during the Early Oligocene in the Hoh Xil Region, Northern Tibetan Plateau

Sedimentological, cyclic-stratigraphic, paleomagnetic, and clay-mineralogical studies on the early Oligocene Yaxicuo Group in the Hoh Xil Basin, the largest Cenozoic sedimentary basin in the hinterland of the Tibetan Plateau, provide abundant information of paleoclimate changes. A 350-m thick section in the middle-lower Yaxicuo Group was analyzed to reveal the climatic history that occurred in the Hoh Xil region during the early Oligocene interval 31.30-30.35 Ma, dated with the paleomagnetic chronostratigraphy. The results indicate that arid and cold climate dominated the Hoh Xil region during the early Oligocene in general, being related to the global cooling and drying events that occurred in the earliest Oligocene. Within this period, relatively warm and wet climate accompanied by strong tectonic activity occurred in the 31.05-30.75 Ma interval; while arid and cold climate and relatively inactive tectonics occurred in the 31.30-31.05 and 30.75-30.35 Ma intervals. Furthermore, spectral analyses of high-temporal resolution paleoclimatic records show orbital periods including eccentricity, obliquity, and precession. It is concluded that paleoclimate changes during the early Oligocene in the Hoh Xil region were forced by both tectonic activity and orbital periods.

Enclosed Extent of the Saline Water and its Constraints on the Sedimentary and Salt Forming Characteristics:A Case Study of the Paleogene Playas in Hoh Xil Basin

1 Introduction There is a long period of hot,arid climates in the Jurassic-Neogene,in the eastern of the Neo-Tethys where is been called Western Yunnan—Qiangtang tectonic belt(Zheng et al.,2010).Especially in the Paleogene,under the control of the planetary winds and the north subtropical high pressure belts,a ribbon arid,semi-arid

MASS ACCUMULATION IN THE CENOZOIC HOH XIL BASIN,NORTHERN TIBET

Sedimentary basins are where the products or erosion of the related reliefs accumulate.The sedimentary records preserved in the basins offer the possibility of quantifying the paleotopography z(x,y,t) at each point( x,y )of a given region at any time t in the past by using methods of mass balanced reconstruction(Hay et al.,1989,Métivier and Gaudemer,1997),The importance of paleotopography is on that atmospheric circulation models and the ocean circulation models which depend on them require knowledge of the topography of the land as an important input boundary condition which strongly affects the model output(Barron and Washington,1984,Ruddiman et al.,1997).Thus,a first step towards establishing paleoelevations is to reconstitute the history of sedimentary basins in terms of mass accumulation(Hay et al.,1989).This work reconstructs the space\|time depositional history and estimates the mass stored in the Hoh Xil basin,northern Tibet.The Hoh Xil basin,with an area of 101000km\+2 and an average elevation of over 5000m,is the largest Cenozoic sedimentary basin in the hinterland of the Tibetan plateau.From the Early Eocene to the Early Miocene,a sediment pile of approximately 5 4km thick of fluvial mudstone,sandstone,and conglomerate and 0 3km thick of limestone was formed in the basin (Liu and Wang,2000;Liu et al.,2000).the mass estimate is derived from 21 measured field cross\|sections,with total thickness of 13479 3m.The results show that the Hoh Xil basin has undergone 7 stages of evolution from the Early Eocene to the Early Oligocene,with a period of no sedimentation during the Late Oligocene.The Fenghuoshan Group was formed from the first four stages as 56 0～52 0,52 0～46 7,46 7～39 7,and 39 7～33 2Ma ago,with the depocenter moving eastward and northward.The Yaxicuo Group was formed from the two next stages as 33 2～32 2 and 33 2～30 2Ma ago.The Wudaoliang Group spread the entire basin during the last stage of ca.23 0～16 0Ma ago,with its depocenter in the northern part.The strata of the Fenghuoshan and Yaxicuo Groups have undergone strong deformation mainly during 30 0 to ca.23 0Ma,whereas only minor tilting has occurred in the Wudaoliang Group later.The space\|time evolution indicates that the Hoh Xil basin could be formed by the collision between Indi and Asia during the Early Eocene,and that its filling processes were controlled by early uplift and crustal shortening of the Tibetan plateau.The sedimentation budget is estimated as 297 15×10 12 t for the Cenozoic sediments deposited in the Hoh Xil basin.The accumulation rate curve shows that the value rises suddenly to around 800t/(m\+2 Ma -1 )during 32 2～30 0Ma ago from around 400t/(m\+2·Ma -1 )during 56～32 2Ma ago.The sudden increase of accumulation rate could be produced by early uplift of the Tibetan plateau.

TWO TYPES OF XENOLITH—MANTLE XENOLITH AND CRUSTAL XENOLITH FOUND IN THE CENOZOIC VOLCANIC ROCKS FROM HOH XIL, NORTHERN TIBET PLATEAU

It is known that large amounts of Cenozoic high potassium volcanic rocks occur on the Tibetan plateau. The question is where do those high potassium magmas come from? Since the plateau is being compressed by subduction and collision from the surrounding continents,it is a puzzle for us what is the formational environment and tectonic setting of these volcanic rocks? In particular,what is the relationship between these special rocks and formation and uplift of the plateau? We recently carried out an investigation on these Cenozoic volcanic rocks in Hoh Xil,northern Tibetan plateau,including volcanic rocks in the Jingyuhu,Xiongyingtai and Shuangquanzi areas. In the region,some older lava flows occur as thick sheets with a flat surface and weathering crust; while some relatively younger lavas remain a relict volcanic cone or vent. Most of the relict cones are small (<100m in diameter) and some are over hundred meters,distributed along faults,particular strike\|slip fault,e.g.,East Kunlun strike slip fault. Relatively,intermediate\|acid volcanic rocks are prominent,and basic\|intermediate and acid are subordinate. Petrological and geochemical results show that these volcanic rocks have many common affinities,characterized by high contents of w (K 2O)+ w (Na 2O) (about 8%),and w (K\-2O)/ w (Na\-2O)>1 or close to 1,and mostly belonged to shoshonite\|trachyte association and some to ultra\|potassic rocks. The K\|Ar dating of whole rock and mica shows that the volcanism lasts from middle Miocene (15 47Ma) to Pleistocene (0 69Ma); they are 0 69Ma,13 77Ma and 15 47Ma in Jingyuhu; 11 05Ma,12 22Ma and 12 83Ma in Xiongyingai,; 1 58Ma,2 24Ma,5 23Ma,5 85Ma,8 20Ma,8 41Ma and 10 67Ma in Shuangquanzi.Two types of xenolith and xenocryst were found in Jingyuhu and Xiongyingtai,i.e..,crustal xenolith and mantle xenocryst.

HOH XIL PIGGYBACK BASINS:IMPLICATIONS FOR PALEOGENE SHORTENING OF THE TIBETAN PLATEAU

Strong deformed sediments investigated in the Hoh Xil basin may contain detailed records for early Tertiary crustal shortening in northern Tibet (Fig.1A). Sedimentary sequences in the basin consist of the Fenghuoshan Group, the Yaxicuo Group, and the early Miocene Wudaoliang Group from lower to upper. Magnetostratigraphic research has indicated the Eocene to early Oligocene ages for the Fenghuoshan and Yaxicuo Groups (Liu, et al., 2000). Total 29 lithological sections with 20487 7m thick were measured spread all over the 101000km\+2 Hoh Xil basin, the largest Tertiary sedimentary basin in the hinterland of the Tibetan plateau, to reveal the prototype basin and its evolution processes. They include 17 sections with 14925 3m thick of the Fenghuoshan Group, 8 sections with 4273 5m thick of the Yaxicuo Group, and 4 sections with 1284 9m thick of the Wudaoliang Group.

THE PALEOCURRENT PATTERN OF EARLY TERTIARY REDBEDS IN THE HOH XIL BASIN,NORTHERN TIBET PLATEAU:IMPLICATIONS FOR AN EARLY UPLIFT AND UNROOFING

We focus on early Cenozoic uplift, erosion and growth of northern Tibet plateau by reconstructing paleo\|drainage pattern in the Hoh Xil basin. Stratigraphical infilling sequences and lithic type orogenic basins are determined largely by contemporaneous tectonic activity. It is therefore reasonable to infer that paleoflow variability record give useful information about regional tectonic events. We now report paleocurrent data from outcrop measurement of 4 expedition profiles across the basin during 1997—1998.The west\|east trending Hoh Xil basin is the largest redbeds basin in northern Tibet plateau. It is 400km in axial length and has maximum width of 200km, which extends along Jin zone, separated the Qiangtang from the Bayankara block. It accommodates more than 5000m of terrestrial sediments during the Eocene to Oligocene dated by preliminary magnetostratigraphy and minor fossils.Detailed sedimentological observation and lithic facies associations analysis of the Eocene Fenghuoshan Group show to have evolved vertically from alluvial fan system in the lowest part, into stacked megasequences of coarsening\|upward fan\|delta system in the middle and upper part. The braided fluvial conglomeratic deposits occur at intervals along the basin margin and grade basin ward interbedded sandstone and mudstone. The Oligocene Yaxicuo Group is locally present and forms as laterally elongate sub\|basins, which is of a maximum thickness of 2000m, as seen in the Wudaoliang and the Hantaishan area. Alluvial fan associations in this sub\|basin in the proximal part adjacent to the southern faulted border and prograded northward to floodplain in distal part.

PROVENANCE OF LOWER TERTIARY REDBEDS IN HOH XIL BASIN AND UPLIFT OF NORTHERN TIBET PLATEAU

Eocene Fenghuoshan Group and lower Oligocene Yaxicuo Group are represented by mainly fluvial, lacustrine and fan\|deltaic redbeds cropping out in Hoh Xil basin, the largest redbed basin in northern Tibet plateau. Lithic sandstone, lithic quartzose sandstone, conglomerate, as well as siltstone, consist of the major rock composition of the redbeds. The petrography of sandstone and conglomerate reveals the relationship between regional tectonic uplift events and the provenance of lower Tertiary redbeds.The outcrop rock data show that the detritus were derived from sedimentary rocks, volcanic rocks, and metamorphic rocks. Phyllite and quartzite rock fragments are most common in the metamorphic rock fragments .The sedimentary rock fragments are composed of chert, limestone, siltstone, and mudstone fragments. But volcanic rock fragments are minor and occasionally occur. In Hantaishan area, the northwestern part of Hoh Xil basin, clastic composition of sandstones and conglomerates testify to mainly southward and northeastward provenances. The metamorphic rock fragments, which are more common than volcanic and sedimentary rock fragments, can be directly correlated with metamorphic rock of Triassic metasedimentary Bayankara Group around the basin. In Fenghuoshan area, the southwestern part of the basin, there are less metamorphic rock fragment composition and more limestone fragments than in Hantaishan area.The limestone fragments were obviously derived from Carboniferous—Permian or Jurassic limestone beds. These limestone strata can not be found in the Bayankara block mass at which Hoh Xil basin locates, thus it is deduced that the limestone detritus were derived from the south, that is, Qiangtang blockmass.

Spatial-temporal characteristics of lake area variations in Hoh Xil region from 1970 to 2011

As one of the areas with numerous lakes on the Tibetan Plateau, the Hoh Xil region plays an extremely important role in the fragile plateau eco-environment. Based on topographic maps in the 1970s and Landsat TM/ETM＋ remote sensing images iin the 1990s and the period from 2000 to 2011, the data of 83 lakes with an area above 10 km2 each were obtained by digitization method and artificial visual interpretation technology, and the causes for lake variations were also analyzed. Some conclusions can be drawn as follows. （1） From the 1970s to 2011, the lakes in the Hoh Xil region firstly shrank and then expanded, in particular, the area of lakes generally decreased during the 1970s-1990s. Then the lakes expanded from the 1990s to 2000 and the area was slightly higher than that in the 1970s. The area of lakes dramatically increased after 2000. （2） From 2000 to 2011, the lakes with different area ranks in the Hoh Xil region showed an overall expansion trend. Meanwhile, some regional differences were also discovered. Most of the lakes expanded and were widely distributed in the northern, central and western parts of the region. Some lakes were merged together or overflowed due to their rapid expansion. A small number of lakes with the trend of area decrease or strong fluctuation were scattered in the central and southern parts of the study area. And their variations were related to their own supply conditions or hydraulic connection with the downstream lakes or rivers. （3） The increase in precipitation was the dominant factor resulting in the expansion of lakes in the Hoh Xil region. The secondary factor was the increase in meltwater from glaciers and frozen soil due to climate warming.

20 000 years environmental changes of the Gonong Co in Hoh Xil of Qinghai

The Gonong Co is situated at 60 km west of the No. 84 Highway Maintenance Squadof the Qinghai-Xizang Highway (34°38’N, 92°09’E) with an elevation of 4670m. In Juneof 1990, a drill 725 cm deep was made on the lake beach with a distanee of 100m to thewater line (20cm high above lake level) by the Hoh Xil Integtated Scientific

NEW MAGNETOSTRATIGRAPHIC AND SEDIMENTOLOGIC RESULTS FROM TERTIARY SEDIMENTS OF THE HOH XIL BASIN, NORTHERN QINGHAI-TIBET PLATEAU: IMPLICATIONS FOR THE CENOZOIC TECTONIC HISTORY OF THE TIBET PLATEAU

To contribute to the understanding of the ages of large sedimentary basins in northern Tibet, and the Cenozoic tectonic history of Asia in general, we conducted an integrated paleomagnetic and stratigraphic study on the sedimentary sequences of the Hoh Xil basin, north of the Qinghai\|Tibet Plateau. Red sedimentary sections from the Fenghuoshan and Yaxicuo Groups have recorded a pattern of magnetic polarity reversals that correlates well with the known magnetic polarity time scale for the past 56Ma. Reliable magnetostratigraphy for the Fenghuoshan and Yaxicuo Groups suggests that the sediment ages for these two groups are about 56～29Ma and 29～25Ma, respectively.We collected more than 1000 paleomagnetic samples from 335 sites distributed in 3 sections of the Hoh Xil basin. Detailed litholostratigraphic, petrologic, and sedimentologic studies have also been carried out on these sections during the past three field sessions. Magnetic directions in these sites were obtained by progressive alternating\|field and thermal demagnetization experiments. Most samples exhibit two components of magnetization. The lower unblocking temperature component is an overprint resembling the geocentric axial dipole field direction at the sampling locality. The most stable, characteristic remanence (ChRM) appears to be an early chemical remanent magnetization residing mainly in hematite. Curie temperature determinations, acquisition of isothermal remanent magnetization (IRM) and backfield demagnetization of saturation IRM, hysteresis loop parameters, and low\|temperature demagnetization on representative samples all corroborate demagnetization behavior. The positive results of fold and reversal tests indicate that the ChRM is a record of the paleomagnetic field close to the time of formation of these sediments. Further evidence that the magnetization of these sediments was acquired close to their time of deposition is the fact that patterns of magnetic reversals have been identified, which can be matched with the established polarity time scale.

MAGNETOSTRATIGRAPHIC DATING:IMPLICATIONS FOR TERTIARY EVOLUTION OF THE HOH XIL BASIN, NORTHERN TIBET

The Hoh Xil basin, with an area of 101000km\+2 and an average elevation of over 5000m, is a largest Tertiary sedimentary basin in the hinterland of the Tibetan plateau. It is situated in the western part of the Baya Har terrain (BT) and the northern part of the Qiangtang terrain (QT), and covers the Jinsha River Suture Zone (JRSZ), one of the five continental suture zones on the Tibetan plateau. Strong deformation and crustal shortening of about 40% at the Fenghuoshan area (Coward,et al.1990) or 42.8% at the Wudaoliang—Fenghuoshan area (Wang,et al.1999) happened at the northern Tibet before the Neogene. Therefore, sediments deposited the Hoh Xil basin may contain significant information of crustal shortening and early uplift of the Tibetan plateau. However, anterior researchers met a same painful problem to date the sedimentary sequences in the basin. By using a few fossils, they assessed doubt ages for main strata in the Hoh Xil basin, as the Paleogene / Eocene (Yi,et al.1990) or the Cretaceous (BGMRQ 1991; Zhang & Zheng 1994), since other datable materials like volcanic rocks are absent. Therefore, the precise stratigraphic dating becomes a precondition of more scientific research in the northern Tibet.

The mineral chemistry of pyroxenite xenoliths in the volcanic rocks of Hoh Xil and their significance

The pyroxenite xenoliths in the volcanic rocks of Hoh Xil consist of clinopyroxenes and orthopyroxenes. The mineral composition of these pyroxenes is similar to that of mantle xenoliths including peridotite and pyroxenite from China and abroad, and different from that of granulites. The pyroxenes formed at 1101-1400 ℃ (averaging 1250 ℃) and under 30-60 kb (averaging 46 kb). We deduced that the magma was derived from the mantle at a depth of more than 150 km, which fits in with the geophysical conclusion that the low-velocity layer existed in the mantle under 150km.

1∶20万区域重力调查成果分析——以可可西里湖地区为例

可可西里湖地区位于青藏高原北部,地质工作程度较低,为认识测区主要地层展布、断裂构造、岩浆岩及沉积盆地分布,在可可西里湖地区开展1∶20万区域重力调查,进行数据处理和综合研究,结果表明:本区地壳趋于均衡补偿,莫霍面与地势大致呈“镜像”关系;共推断断裂21条,东昆仑南断裂是西域板块和华南板块的边界,其以北地区莫霍面快速抬升,东昆仑中断裂位置较以往偏北约12 km;圈定侵入岩10处,主要在东昆仑中缝合带发育;识别中新生代沉积盆地9处,并反演底界面埋深变化,楚玛尔河盆地新生界厚度在2000 m以上;在速度结构和电性结构约束下,通过重力2.5维定量反演建立了地质地球物理剖面模型,分析了主要构造单元的地质特征,同时初步划分金属矿找矿远景区4处。

近30年青藏高原可可西里盐湖面积动态变化及其影响因素分析

青藏高原湖泊是全球气候变化的敏感指标,对全球气候变化具有很强的反馈作用。由于卓乃湖的溃堤,地处于青藏高原腹地的可可西里盐湖迅速扩张,这不仅对周边草地植被及流经的冻土造成危害,对青藏铁路和青藏公路的正常运行也产生了干扰。本文利用多源遥感监测手段对可可西里盐湖近30年面积进行监测,从时空变化趋势上提取盐湖面积的动态变化并进行成因分析。结果表明:(1)2011年9月卓乃湖溃决,导致可可西里盐湖面积1990—2020年增大了178.535 km^(2);(2)自2020年可可西里盐湖的引流工程完工,盐湖面积得到有效遏制,并在2021年缩小至191.145 km^(2);(3)盐湖湖岸线自1990—2020年主要在东南部和西南部有显著扩张,而最大的变化是盐湖东部由以前伸入湖中央的半岛变为孤岛;(4)面积与降水、气温呈显著相关关系,与日照时长、冰川融水呈弱相关关系。

青藏高原中部可可西里热融滑塌发育特征及灾害效应

受青藏高原暖湿化气候的影响,高原中部的可可西里多年冻土呈现快速的退化状态,并由此诱发大量的热喀斯特地貌发育。热融滑塌作为多年冻土区最为典型的热喀斯特地貌,其快速发育是多年冻土响应气候及环境变化的指示器。考察发现热融滑塌的快速发育对区域环境及重大基础设施均具有显著的灾害效应,但由于缺乏高精度的空间数据,对这一区域热融滑塌的分布特征缺乏细致的研究。本研究基于高分系列卫星产品影像资料解译,并结合2021年野外调查验证,开展了可可西里地区热融滑塌分布特征及灾害效应研究。研究结果表明:全区共发育热融滑塌1734个,总面积约30.82 km^(2),主要分布在海拔4700~4800 m的丘陵山区缓坡地带,其中4°~6°的坡面热融滑塌分布最多,约占总数量的32%,总面积的38%。由于坡向对地表热量分布及地下冰赋存条件的影响,对热融滑塌分布影响较大,北坡(N)及东北坡(NE)分布较多,约占59%。广泛发育的热融滑塌不仅对寒区生态环境、水环境、气候环境有重要的影响,也对重大基础设施及藏区居民生命财产具有灾害效应。本研究对可可西里地区未来工程规划及国家公园建设具有重要的指导意义。

可可西里盆地新生代沉积演化历史重建

青藏高原北部可可西里盆地是高原腹地最大的第三纪沉积盆地,分布着厚度达5737.5m的新生代沉积。本文根据遍布整个盆地的野外实测剖面和地质观察点资料,采用典型剖面精确古地磁测年为基础的时间框架,开展沉积层序、岩性特征、沉积环境和古水流变化综合对比研究,将可可西里盆地新生代(约56Ma至约16Ma)划分为7个演化阶段,其中在30Ma至约23Ma期间盆地经历抬升变形,没有沉积作用发生。结果显示,前6个阶段(约56Ma至30Ma),盆地沉积中心逐渐向北、向东迁移,盆地南缘和西缘的构造逆冲作用逐步加强,而且在晚渐新世发生强烈南北向地壳缩短,反映青藏高原腹地早期隆升过程是依靠南北向地壳缩短和北东向逆冲扩展作用来实现的。在早中新世(约23Ma至约16Ma),盆地沉积物遭受低度变形,表明此期间高原以差异隆升为主。

夏季雌性藏羚昼间行为时间分配及活动节律

2003至2005年的6～9，采用目标动物观察法在可可西里观察夏季雌性藏羚的昼间行为。将雌性藏羚的行为分为觅食、警戒、卧息、移动和“其他”5种类型，各类行为所占时间比例分别为59．1％、7．3％、19．4％、13．0％和1．3％。觅食消耗的时间最多，是藏羚的常见行为，卧息、移动和警戒次之，而“其他”行为消耗时间最短。觅食、警戒、卧息和移动的累计时间在不同时段之间均存在显著（P〈0．05）或极显著（P〈0．01）差异。觅食行为存在3个高峰，分别在10：00～11：00，13：00—14：00和18：00～19．00；警戒的高峰期出现在早上08：00～09：00，在15：00～16：00以及17：00～18：00也分别出现小的高峰，但不明显；卧息行为表现为双峰形，分别为11：00～12：00和16：00～17：00。移动行为也表现为双峰，出现在08：00～09：00和15：00～16：00；“其他”行为在各时段间没有明显的，变化趋势．

青海可可西里地区蛇绿岩的时代及形成环境

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