Study on the Change Character of Double Rice Cold Damage in Hunan and Hubei Province during the Past 50 Years

Based on the meteorological data of representative meteorological stations in Hunan and Hubei from 1961 to 2008 years,the change character of double rice cold damage under the background of climate change were analyzed adopting 30 years glide accumulation method.The analysis showed that the 30 years sliding cumulative days of mild low-temperature during spring sowing in Hunan and Hubei were decreased in the recent 50 years,as well as the 30 years sliding cumulative days of moderate low-temperature in central south Hubei,northern and western Hunan.However,there was an increase in southern Hunan,so was the 30 years sliding cumulative days of severe low-temperature.The 30 years sliding cumulative days of mild low-temperature in May reduced in Hunan and Hubei.Instead,that of moderate low-temperature in May in central south Hubei was on the rise,and it was opposite in northern and southern Hunan,but there was no obvious change in western Hunan.The 30 years sliding cumulative days of severe low-temperature showed a decreasing tendency in May in central south Hubei,northern and western Hunan,and southern Hunan showed a contrary tendency.The 30 years sliding cumulative days of mild cold dew wind in Hunan and Hubei were decreased,that of moderate cold dew wind in central south Hubei,northern and western Hunan had the same tendency,but there was a contrary tendency in southern Hunan.The 30 years sliding cumulative days of severe cold dew wind was decreased in central south Hubei and increased in western Hunan,without cold dew wind in northern and southern Hunan.

The 9th China-Mongolia-Russia Tea Road City Cooperation Conference Held in Hanchuan,Xiaogan City,Hubei Province

The 9th China-Mongolia-Russia Tea Road City Cooperation Conference(the Conference for short)was held from April 17 to 19 at Huanglong Lake International Conference Centre in Hanchuan,Xiaogan City,which is an important stop along the waterway of the tea road in Hubei Province.Themed Civilisation Exchanges and Mutual Learning for Win-Win City Cooperation,the Conference is on the list of the Multilateral Cooperation Deliverables of the Third Belt and Road Forum for International Cooperation.It is an important practice to implement the guiding principles of the keynote speech delivered by President Xi Jinping at the opening ceremony of the third BRF,as well as to carry forward the Deliverables of the BRF in a quality way.

CAFIU Hosts Civilisation Lecture in Xiaogan,Hubei Province

On April 18,the Chinese Association for International Understanding(CAFIU)held Civilisation Lecture at Huanglonghu(the Yellow Dragon Lake)Tea Culture Museum in Xiaogan,Hubei Province.

Origin of the Yueguang gold deposit in Xinhua, Hunan Province, South China: insights from fl uid inclusion and hydrogen–oxygen stable isotope analysis

The Yueguang gold deposit is located in Fengjia,Xinhua County,Hunan Province,South China.It represents a recently discovered small-scale gold deposit situated in the southwestern region of the Jiangnan Orogenic Belt,west of the Baimashan granitic batholith.In order to discern the characteristics of the ore-formingfluids,the underlying mineralization processes,and establish a foundation for the origin of the Yueguang gold depositfluid inclusion micro-thermometry,as well as quartz hydrogen and oxygen isotope analysis,have been carried out on samples obtained from various stages of mineralization.The hydrothermal miner-alization stages within the Yueguang gold deposit can be categorized into three stages:(i)the barren,pre-ore quartz-pyrite stage(Stage Ⅰ),the quartz-pyrite-gold stage(Stage Ⅱ),and the post-ore quartz-carbonate stage(Stage Ⅲ),with the second stage being the main mineralization stage.Thefluid inclusions identified in samples from the main min-eralization stage can predominantly be described with the NaCl–H_(2)O and CO_(2)–NaCl–H_(2)O systems.These inclusions display homogenization temperatures ranging from 158.8 to 334.9℃,and thefluid salinity ranges from 0.3%to 4.0%(wt.%NaCl equiv.).Laser Raman spectroscopy analysis of individual inclusions further reveals the presence of gas-phases such as CO_(2),CH_(4),and N_(2).Isotopic analysis indicatesδ^(18)Ofluid values ranging from 3.95 to 6.7‰ and δDH_(2)O values ranging from-71.9 to-55.7‰.These results indi-cate that the ore-formingfluid of the Yueguang gold deposit belongs to metamorphic hydrothermalfluids of middle-low temperature and low salinity.In the process of ore formation,gold is transported in the form of Au(HS)2-complexes,with gold deposition being driven byfluid immiscibility.Therefore,the Yueguang gold deposit is categorized as an orogenic gold deposit dominated by metamorphic hydrother-malfluid.It may become a new target for gold exploration in the Baimashan region,central Hunan Province.

Survey and Recommendations for Land Use of Agricultural Machinery Service Organization Facilities in Guizhou Province

With the advancement of agricultural modernization, agricultural machinery service organizations, as an important part of the rural operating entities, show an increasing trend year by year, and need new facilities land in the process of development and growth. Based on the written survey of 597 agricultural machinery service organizations in Guizhou Province, the demand and demand gap of various facilities land use in agricultural machinery service organizations were analyzed and compared. In addition, based on the field survey and policy background, the main practices and experiences of agricultural machinery service organizations in Guizhou Province in the approval and use of facility land were sorted out, and the problems and causes of large gap in facility agricultural land, lack of standards and difficulty in policy implementation were analyzed. Finally, it recommended that the site selection of agricultural machinery service organization facilities needs to be standardized, the land demand needs to be coordinated, the land scale needs to be scientifically demonstrated, and financial support should be sought to promote Guizhou agricultural machinery service organization to become bigger, better and stronger.

Analysis of Change of Cultivated Land and Grain Production in Hunan Province

[Objective] This paper aimed at exploring the countermeasures for cultivated land protection and food security assurance and providing references for the formulation of policies related to cultivated land and grain production of the whole province.[Methods] Data of population,cultivated land,grain and others in Hunan Province during 1989 to 2008 were collected by county（district）.The changes of cultivated land and grain production of the whole province were analyzed using Geographical Information System（GIS）.[Results] The population was increasing continuously,the total area of cultivated land was reducing as a whole in spite of increasing in one or two year in one or two county,the total grain production and per capita grain yield was fluctuated within a certain range in recent 20 years of the whole province.The reducing of cultivated land was mainly due to the industrialization and urbanization development.The unbalanced quantity and quality of cultivated land,various natural disasters,readjustment of industry structure and inner readjustment in the agriculture,variety improvement and improvement of cultivated technology mainly affected of the grain production.[Conclusions] The protection of the quantity and quality of cultivated land has to be strengthened to ensure food security.It is important to enhance the ability of resisting drought and flood disasters by improving the construction of agriculture establishment in order to insure the productivity of cultivated land,to increase farmer’s enthusiasm for growing grain with favourable food policy,to improve the per unit area yield of grain by variety improvement and to increase grain sown area by enlarging the double-cropping rice sown area.

Analysis of Emergy Structure,Function and Efficiency of Agro-ecosystem in Hunan Province

[Objective] The aim was to explore function and efficiency of emergy input/ output of Hunan agricultural ecosystem to reveal relationship of human being with natural resources and environment. [Method] Emergy structure, function and efficien- cy of Hunan agricultural ecosystem were analyzed based on input/output data in Hunan Province in 2009 as per emergy theory. [Result] The structure characters of agricultural ecosystem were as follows： Hunan is characterized with traditional agri- culture, depending greatly on both human and animal labor. For industrial accessory emergy, chemical fertilizers make most contribution to the system, and agricultural mechanization is not satisfied. Furthermore, renewable ratio of industrial accessory emergy is lower, and development and potential of green energy is promising. In addition, prices of the products are lower, without consideration of contribution made by natural resources and environment. It also suggested that Hunan agricultural chain is short and added value of products is not high. In general, emergy output of farming and animal husbandry dominates and the prices are lower than those of forestry and fishery. The function of the system was as follows： With lower environ- mental load ratio, the system is overloaded by population and the index of sustain- able development was 5.96, suggesting that the system enjoys vitality and potential, but the economy is undeveloped and the pressure from natural resources and envi- ronment is not high. The emergy output ratio was a little lower than national level in 2009, suggesting Hunan agricultural production is extensive. [Conclusion] The re- search indicated that rapid increase of population should be controlled; surplus labor should be transferred; agricultural structure and products structure should be further adjusted; agricultural technology should be further developed; agdcultural mechaniza- tion and modernization should be improved.

Research on the Current Status, Paths and Countermeasures of Family Farm Development in China——Investigation and Analysis of Hubei Province

The Chinese family farm is the most important new micro subject in the construction and development of modern agriculture in China. The investigation and analysis of the actual situation of Hubei Province showed that since the implementation of the household contract management system in rural areas, the family farm has followed the track of gradual development, breakthrough development and normal standardization development. In order to promote the family farm to develop rapidly, orderly and healthily, work must be well done to land circulation, scale management, financial support, financial subsidy, cultivation of leading talents and professional farmers, and providing all-round services.

Regional Division of Production and Development Strategy of Citrus in Hunan Province

[Objective] The aim was to research regional division of citrus production and development strategies in Hunan Province. [Method] According to Rural Statisti- cal Yearbook in Hunan Province during 2002-2011, Citrus in Hunan province were divided into three production regions, namely, superior region, sub-superior and non- superior region. On the base of the divisions, the ecological regionalization and brand strategy, Optimization of regional distribution and developing strategy were proposed, with consideration of avoiding frozen zones, in this paper. [Result] Fresh and processing bases of mandarin orange （C.unshiu Marc）, and specialty industries of seedless ponkan（C.reticulata Blanco）, Bingtang orange （C.sinensis Osbeck Bing- tangcheng）, Dayongjuhuaxinyou （Cgrandis （L.） Osbeck Dayongjuhuaxinyou） and An- jiangxiangyou （C.grandis （L.） Osbeck Anjiangxiangyou） should be constructed, where fresh fruit is dominant, supplemented by canned fruit and juice. Industry belt of sat- suma orange, fresh or processing food, is mainly built, for proportion of early and earlier ripe satsuma orange is over 50% of total yield in Xiangzhong citrus zone; in- dustry belt of excellent fresh navel orange and processing sweet orange should be highlighted in Xiangnan. [Conclusion] The research provides references for decision- making for governments, especially on optimization of citrus production regions and development of citrus industry.

Production Performance and Development Strategies of Double-cropping Rice in Hunan Province

ln the research, an empirical analysis was performed on production per-formance and influential factors of rice in Changsha County and Liling City. The re-sults showed that production scale has been closely linked to age and education level of farmers. The larger scale, the higher comprehensive performance, but rele-vant efficiency tends to be lower. Sowing area and yield per unit area are major in-fluential factors of production performance of double-cropping rice, but the rest influ-ential factors are different upon production scale. Final y, developmental strategies are proposed for development of double-cropping rice.

Evaluation of Ecological Sustainability Based on Ecological Footprint in Hunan Province

To make clear ecological sustainable development in Hunan Province, biomass resources and the energy consumption indexes of Hunan Province in 2013 were selected, and quantity analysis of the regional ecological consumption and the ecological carrying capacity was carried out using the ecological footprint method. The results showed that the net ecological deficit per capita was 1.718 hm2 in 2013 in Hunan Province, which indicated the regional development was beyond the scope of ecological carrying capacity. So, according to the present unsustainable situation, the corresponding development suggestions were put forward.

Research on the Agglomeration and Fluctuation Situation of Rice Production in Hunan Province

[Objective] This paper aimed at studying the agglomeration and fluctuation situation of rice production in Hunan Province during the past 10 years.[Method] Data were collected from Hunan Rural Statistical Yearbook（2001-2010）.Taking the concentration index of sown area and production（CDI） and the volatility index（VI） as the main indicators,the agglomeration and fluctuation situation of paddy rice,early-season rice,middle-season rice and single-season late rice,late-season rice,good quality early-season rice,good quality middle-season rice and good quality single-season late rice,good quality late-season rice production in each major rice-producing area of Hunan Province during the past 10 years had been studied.[Result] The orders of concentration index of sown areas and production of paddy rice,early-season rice,middle-season rice and single-season late rice,late-season rice,good quality early-season rice,good quality middle-season rice and good quality single-season late rice,good quality late-season rice in Hunan Province varied,but the orders of volatility index were consistent.The stable areas,relatively stable areas and fluctuant areas in sown areas and production of different major rice-producing areas were defined.[Conclusion] The research had provided basis for optimizing the layout of rice production in Hunan Province,promoting agglomeration and development of rice production and translating the comparative advantages into the competitive advantages.

Quantitative Study on the Relationship between Water Disaster and Grain Production of Hubei Province in the 1990s

The research explored variation coefficient of grains and analyzed the fluctuations of grains in Hubei in the 1990s in order to investigate quantitative cor- relation between grain production and water-related disaster. The conclusion is that the effective irrigated area and growing structure are major factors influencing grain production capacity, whose grey relational degrees were 0.91 and 0.85 with grain production, respectively. These indicated that water-related disasters have significant effects on grain yield in Hubei Province.

Study on Agglomeration and Fluctuation Situation and Development Countermeasures of Economic Crop Production in Hunan Province

[Objective] This paper aimed to investigate the agglomeration and fluctuation situation of economic crop production in Hunan Province and to propose related development countermeasures. [Method] With agglomeration index and fluctuation index as main indicators, the agglomeration and fluctuation situation of the production of seven major economic crops in Hunan Province in recent decade was studied. [Result] The agglomeration index of sown area and yield of seven major economic crops in Hunan Province showed decreasing orders of ramie 〉 cotton 〉 tobacco 〉 rape〉 citrus 〉 tea 〉 vegetables, ramie 〉 cotton 〉 tobacco 〉 tea 〉 rape 〉 citrus 〉 vegetables, respectively; the fluctuation index of sown area and yield showed decreasing orders of ramie 〉 citrus 〉 vegetables 〉 cotton 〉 tea 〉 rape 〉 tobacco, citrus 〉 ramie 〉 tea 〉 cotton 〉 rape 〉 tobacco 〉 vegetables, respectively. In addition, stable regions, relatively stabte regions and fluctuation regions of sown area and yield in various main producing areas were identified, and corresponding development countermeasures were proposed. [Cenclusion] The key to accelerate the development of major economic crop production in Hunan Province is further improving the agglomeration level of vegetable, citrus, rape and tea production and focusing on maintaining the stability of citrus, ramie and cotton production in main producing areas.

Characteristics of Shale Reservoir and Sweet Spot Identification of the Lower Cambrian Niutitang Formation in Northwestern Hunan Province, China

The accumulation and productivity of shale gas are mainly controlled by the characteristics of shale reservoirs;study of these characteristics forms the basis for the shale gas exploitation of the Lower Cambrian Niutitang Formation(Fm),Southern China.In this study,core observation and lithology study were conducted along with X-ray diffraction(XRD)and electronic scanning microscopy(SEM)examinations and liquid nitrogen(N2)adsorption/desorption and CH4 isothermal adsorption experiments for several exploration wells in northwestern Hunan Province,China.The results show that one or two intervals with high-quality source rocks(TOC>2 wt%)were deposited in the deep-shelf facies.The source rocks,which were mainly composed of carbonaceous shales and siliceous shales,had high quartz contents(>40 wt%)and low clay mineral(<30 wt%,mainly illites)and carbonate mineral(<20 wt%)contents.The SEM observations and liquid nitrogen(N2)adsorption/desorption experiments showed that the shale is tight,and nanoscale pores and microscale fractures are well developed.BJH volume(VBJH)of shale ranged from 2.144×10^-3 to 20.07×10^-3 cm^3/g,with an average of 11.752×10^-3 cm3/g.Pores mainly consisted of opened and interconnected mesopores(2–50 nm in diameter)or macropores(>50 nm in diameter).The shale reservoir has strong adsorption capacity for CH4.The Langmuir volume(VL)varied from 1.63 to 7.39 cm^3/g,with an average of 3.95 cm^3/g.The characteristics of shale reservoir are controlled by several factors:(1)A deep muddy continental shelf is the most favorable environment for the development of shale reservoirs,which is controlled by the development of basic materials.(2)The storage capacity of the shale reservoir is positively related to the TOC contents and plastic minerals and negatively related to cement minerals.(3)High maturity or overmaturity leads to the growth of organic pores and microfractures,thereby improving the reservoir storage capacity.It can be deduced that the high percentage of residual gas in Niutitang Fm results from the strong reservoir storage capacity of adsorbed gas.Two layers of sweet spots with strong storage capacity of free gas,and they are characterized by the relatively high TOC contents ranging from 4 wt%to 8 wt%.

Estimating health damage cost from secondary sulfate particles—a case study of Hunan Province,China

China's coal dominated energy pattern has resulted in large amount of SO 2 emissions. Estimate of the sulfur related health damage cost is necessary to help perform systematic cost benefit analysis and set national energy and emissions control priorities. Current researches were confined to gaseous SO 2 in urban areas; however, secondary sulfate (SO 2- 4) particles can exert serious impact in a wider region. Based on the concept of “intake fraction', CALPUFF long range dispersion model and 180 sample emission sources, multiple regression equation was obtained with good correlation( r =0 85), which illustrates that populations were key parameters to determine intake fraction but source characteristics were insignificant. Based on the formula and the population distribution data, county level intake fractions were mapped for Hunan Province(range: 1 1×10 -6 -3 2×10 -6 ) of China. A combination of county level SO 2 emissions with the intake fractions yields a total 1 98 tons of sulfate(SO 2- 4) inhalation, and resulting total health damage cost to be 0 76(willingness to pay approach, WTP) or 0 16(human capital approach, HC) billion USD in 1997, about 2.1% or 0 45% of GDP in Hunan in 1997. Average health damage cost per ton of SO 2 emission is 930(WTP) or 200 USD(HC). The results demonstrated that more stringent regulation should be forced.

Fixed Ammonium in Major Types of Paddy Soils in Hunan Province, China

The contents, affecting factors, seasonal changes and availability of fixed ammonium in major types ofpaddy soils derived from different parent materials in Hunan Province, China, were studied using the Silva-Bremner method by laboratory and pot experiments. Results showed that the content of fixed ammoniumin the plough horizons ranged from 88.3 mg kg-1 to 388.1 mg kg-1, with 273.2 ± 77.7 mg kg-1 on average,accounting for 11.2% of total soil N on average. Content of fixed ammonium decreased in the order of newlylacustrine clayey paddy soil ＞ alluvial sandy paddy soil ＞ purple clayey paddy soil ＞ newly alluvial sandypaddy soil ＞ yellow clayey paddy soil ＞ reddish-yellow clayey paddy soil ＞ granitic sandy paddy soil. Therewere four distribution patterns of fixed ammonium in the profiles to 1-m depth, i.e., increase with the depth,decrease with increasing depth, no distinct change with the depth, and abrupt increase or decrease in somehorizon. Percentage of fixed ammonium in total N increased with the depth in most of the soils. Fixationof NH4+ by soil was higher at 30 ℃ than at 20 ℃ and 40 ℃, and continuous submergence benefited thefixation of NH4+ in newly alluvial sandy paddy soil, purple clayey paddy soil and alluvial sandy paddy soil,while alternating wetting and drying contributed to the fixation of NH4+ in yellow clayey paddy soil mostly.Fixed ammonium content in the test paddy soils was significantly correlated with ＜ 0.01 mm clay content(P ＜ 0.05), but not with ＜ 0.001 mm clay content, total N, organic N and organic matter. Fixed ammoniumcontent varied with rice growth stages. Application of N fertilizer promoted fixation of NH4+ by soil, and Nuptake by rice plant promoted release of fixed ammonium from the soil. Recently fixed ammonium in paddysoil after N fertilizer application was nearly 100% available to rice plant, while native fixed ammonium wasonly partly available, varying with the soil type and rice type.

Fixed Ammonium Content and Maximum Capacity of Ammonium Fixation in Major Types of Tillage Soils in Hunan Province,China

In order to understand the status of fixed ammonium, fixed ammonium content, maximum capacity of ammonium fixation, and their influencing factors in major types of tillage soils of Hunan Province, China, were studied with sampling on fields, and laboratory incubation and determination. The main results are summarized as follows： （1） Content of fixed ammonium in the tested soils varies greatly with soil use pattern and the nature of parent material. For the paddy soils, it ranges from 135.4 ± 57.4 to 412.8±32,4 mg kg^-1, with 304.7±96.7 mg kg^-1 in average; while it ranges from 59.4 to 435.7 mg kg^-1, with 230.1 ± 89.2 mg kg^-1 in average for the upland soils. The soils developed from limnic material and slate had higher fixed ammonium content than the soils developed from granite. The percentage of fixed ammonium to total N in the upland soils is always higher than that in the paddy soils. It ranges from 6.1 ±3.6% to 16.6±4.6%, with 14.0% ±5.1% in average for the paddy soils and it amounted to 5.8±2.0% to 40.1 ± 17.8%, with 23.5 ± 14.2% in average for upland soils. （2） The maximum capacity of ammonium fixation has the same trend with the fixed ammonium content in the tested soils. For all the tested soils, the percentage of recently fixed ammonium to maximum capacity of ammonium fixation is always bellow 20% and it may be due to the fact that the soils have high fertility and high saturation of ammonium-fixing site. （3） The clay content and clay composition in the tested soils are the two important factors influencing their fixed ammonium content and maximum capacity of ammonium fixation. The results showed that hydrous mica is the main 2：1 type clay mineral in 〈 0.02 mm clay of the paddy soils, and its content in 0.02-0.002 mm clay is much higher than that in 〈 0.002 mm clay of the soils. The statistical analysis showed that both the fixed ammonium content and the maximum capacity of ammonium fixation of the paddy soils were positively correlated with the total 2：1 type clay mineral content and hydrous mica content in 〈 0.02 mm clay and 0,02-0.002 mm clay at the significant level of P0.01 or P0.05, respectively, but not correlated with the total 2：1 type clay mineral content and hydrous mica content in 〈0.002 mm clay significantly, It demonstrated that the ammonium-fixing matrix of the tested soils mainly exists in the 0.02-0.002 mm clay. The above-mentioned results showed that fixed ammonium is a major form of N in the tillage soils in Hunan Province, China. It would play an important role in N nutrition of crops, especially for upland crops, and deserve to be further researched.

He-Ar-S-Pb Isotopic Compositions of Pyrite：Constraints on the Source of Ore-forming Materials of the Chengchao Skarn Iron Deposit,SE Hubei Province,Eastern China

The Chengchao iron deposit,the largest high-grade skarn iron deposit in southeastern Hubei Province,contains considerable amounts of magnetite and by-product anhydrite.To obtain better understanding of the ore-formation process,this study carried out He-Ar-S-Pb multi-isotopic analyses on the pyrites formed during two stages of mineralization.The results indicate that the δ34S values（ranging from 14.0‰ to 17.6‰） of pyrites formed from the two stages have no obvious differences,suggesting that they were not derived from a single magmatic sulfur source.The δ34S values of anhydrite mostly range from 21.9‰ to 28.4‰,similar to that of the Middle Triassic sedimentary anhydrite in the Middle-Lower Yangtze River metallogenic belt（MLYRB）.The Pb isotopic compositions of the pyrites of both stages are homogeneous,with values of 208Pb/204Pb,207Pb/204Pb,and-206Pb/204Pb being 38.006-38.257,15.523-15.556,and 17.806-18.052,respectively,indicating a mixed crust-mantle source.The He-Ar results exhibit different compositions of the two stages：the -3He/-4He（R/Ra） and 40Ar/-36Ar values for the early-stage pyrite are 0.46-0.63 and 311-322,respectively,whereas the values for late-stage pyrite are 0.23-0.34 and 305-361,respectively.Both stages of pyrites indicate the multiple sources of the ore-forming fluids,with decreasing amount of magmatic water and increasing amount of modified meteoric water（MASW） during fluid evolution.The Triassic evaporites played an important role in the mineralization process.

Giant Induan oolite:A case study from the Lower Triassic Daye Formation in the western Hubei Province,South China

Most Phanerozoic oolites are marked by ooids with a diameter less than 2 mm. Observations on a Neoproterozoic oolite have resulted in a change of concept. The term ＂pisolite＂ that traditionally referred to oolites with a grain size of more than 2 ram, is now restricted to those coated carbonate grains formed by meteoritic freshwater diagenesis; oolites with a grain size of more than 2 mm are now defined as ＂giant＂. Particular unusual giant oolites within a set of oolitic-bank limestones with thicknesses of more than 40 m in the top part of the Lower Triassic （Induan） Daye （Ruiping） Formation at the Lichuan section in the western part of Hubei Province in South China, represent an important sedimentological phenomenon in both the specific geological period and the geological setting that is related to the end-Permian biological mass extinction. Like the giant oolites of the Neoproterozoic that represent deposits where oolites formed in a vast low-angle carbonate ramp at that special geological period, the Triassic Daye Formation at the study section are significant because they provide a comparative example to help understand the evolving carbonate world reflected by oolites, the origin of which is still uncertain, and they give insight into the sedimentation pattern of the desolate sea floor, which resulted from the mass extinction at the turn of the Permian into the Triassic.