Neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio and platelet-to-lymphocyte ratio:Markers predicting immune-checkpoint inhibitor efficacy and immune-related adverse events

We conducted a comprehensive review of existing prediction models pertaining to the efficacy of immune-checkpoint inhibitor(ICI)and the occurrence of immune-related adverse events(irAEs).The predictive potential of neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio(NLR)and platelet-to-lymphocyte ratio(PLR)in determining ICI effectiveness has been extensively investigated,while limited research has been conducted on predicting irAEs.Furthermore,the combined model incor-porating NLR and PLR,either with each other or in conjunction with additional markers such as carcinoembryonic antigen,exhibits superior predictive capabilities compared to individual markers alone.NLR and PLR are promising markers for clinical applications.Forthcoming models ought to incorporate established efficacious models and newly identified ones,thereby constituting a multifactor composite model.Furthermore,efforts should be made to explore effective clinical application approaches that enhance the predictive accuracy and efficiency.

Correlation between immune-related adverse events and long-term outcomes in pembrolizumab-treated patients with unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma:A retrospective study

BACKGROUND Although immune checkpoint inhibitor(ICI)therapy has improved the prognosis of unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma(HCC),it has also resulted in unique immune-related adverse events(irAEs).The relationship between irAE and treatment outcomes in ICI-treated unresectable HCC patients remains unknown.AIM To elucidate the correlation between immune-related toxic effects and prognosis in patients with unresectable HCC treated with pembrolizumab.METHODS From March 2019 to February 2021,a total of 190 unresectable HCC(Barcelona Clinic Liver Cancer C)patients receiving pembrolizumab treatment were retrospectively reviewed.Overall survival(OS)was the primary endpoint,while objective response rate(ORR),disease control rate(DCR),and time to progression(TTP)were secondary evaluation indexes.We assessed demographics,irAEs,and outcomes by retrospective review.RESULTS One hundred and forty-three males and 47 females were included in the study.The ORR and DCR were 12.1%(23/190)and 52.1%(99/190),respectively.The median OS was 376 d[95%confidence interval(CI):340-411 d]and the median TTP was 98 d(95%CI:75-124 d).The overall incidence of treatment-related adverse events was 72.6%(138/190)and 10.0%of them were severe irAEs(grade≥3).Child-Pugh B class,portal vein tumor thrombus,extrahepatic metastasis,and hypothyroidism were the independent risk factors for survival.Patients with hypothyroidism showed a longer OS[517 d(95%CI:423-562)vs 431 d(95%CI:412-485),P=0.011]and TTP[125 d(95%CI:89-154)vs 87 d(95%CI:61-98),P=0.004]than those without irAEs.CONCLUSION Pembrolizumab-treated patients with unresectable HCC who experienced hypothyroidism have promising ORR and durable response.Hypothyroidism,an irAE,may be used as a clinical evaluation parameter of response to ICIs in unresectable HCC.

Immune-related adverse events induced by programmed death protein-1 inhibitors from the perspective of lymphoma immunotherapy

Lymphoma,which is highly malignant,stems from lymph nodes and lymphoid tissue.Lymphoma cells express programmed death-ligand 1/2(PD-L1/PD-L2),which binds with programmed cell death 1 protein(PD-1)to establish inhibitory signaling that impedes the normal function of T cells and allows tumor cells to escape immune system surveillance.Recently,immune checkpoint inhibitor immunotherapies such as PD-1 inhibitors(nivolumab and pembrolizumab)have been introduced into the lymphoma treatment algorithm and have shown remarkable clinical efficacy and greatly improve prognosis in lymphoma patients.Accordingly,the number of lymphoma patients who are seeking treatment with PD-1 inhibitors is growing annually,which results in an increasing number of patients developing immune-related adverse events(irAEs).The occurrence of irAEs inevitably affects the benefits provided by immunotherapy,particularly when PD-1 inhibitors are applied.However,the mechanisms and characteristics of irAEs induced by PD-1 inhibitors in lymphoma need further investigation.This review article summarizes the latest research advances in irAEs during treatment of lymphoma with PD-1 inhibitors.A comprehensive understanding of irAEs incurred in immunotherapy can help to achieve better efficacy with PD-1 inhibitors in lymphoma.

Use of traditional Chinese medicine in the treatment of immune-related adverse events of cancer immunotherapy

Immune checkpoint inhibitors(ICPI)have shown considerable promise in the treatment of tumors.However,immune-related adverse events(irAEs)caused by ICPI have been reported in nearly every organ system.Whilst this represents a new challenge in the field of cancer treatment,traditional Chinese medicine(TCM)provides benefits in the treatment of irAEs.This article reviews the studies of the treatment of immune-related gastrointestinal diseases and dermatosis with TCM and introduces the collaborative efforts between China and France in the implementation of TCM for the treatment of irAEs.

Analysis of characteristics and predictive factors of immune checkpoint inhibitor-related adverse events

Objective:We aimed to retrospectively analyze the toxicity profiles and predictors of immune-related adverse events(irAEs)as well as the correlation between irAEs and the clinical efficacy of multi-type immune checkpoint inhibitors(ICIs)in patients with advanced pan-cancer in a real-world setting.Methods:We retrospectively analyzed data from 105 patients with advanced pan-cancer treated with multi-type ICIs at the First Hospital of Jilin University between January 1,2016 and August 1,2020.We used logistic regression analyses to investigate the associations of irAEs with clinical baseline characteristics,blood count parameters,and biochemical indicators during treatment.Receiver operating characteristic curves were used to determine cutoff values for parameters and area under the curve values.Kaplan–Meier and Cox multivariate regression analyses were performed to estimate the relationships of baseline characteristics and irAEs with progression-free survival(PFS)and overall survival(OS).Results:A lower relative lymphocyte count(cutoff=28.5%),higher albumin level(cutoff=39.05 g/L),and higher absolute eosinophil count(AEC)(cutoff=0.175×10^(9)/L)were significantly associated with the occurrence of irAEs,among which a higher AEC(cutoff=0.205×10^(9)/L)was strongly associated with skin-related irAEs[odds ratios(ORs)=0.163,P=0.004].Moreover,a higher lactate dehydrogenase level(cutoff=237.5 U/L)was an independent predictor of irAEs of grade≥3(OR=0.083,P=0.023).In immune cell subgroup analysis,a lower absolute count of CD8+CD28−suppressor T cells(OR=0.806;95%confidence interval:0.643–1.011;P=0.062),which are regulatory T lymphocytes,was associated with the occurrence of irAEs,although the difference was not statistically significant.Furthermore,a higher percentage of CD19+B cells was associated with the occurrence of irAEs of grade≥3(P=0.02)and grade≥2(P=0.051).In addition,patients with any grade of irAE had a significantly high PFS(8.37 vs.3.77 months,hazard ratios(HR)=2.02,P=0.0038)and OS(24.77 vs.13.83 months,HR=1.84;P=0.024).Conclusions:This retrospective study reports clinical profile data for irAEs in unselected patients in a real-world setting and explored some parameters that may be potential predictive markers of the occurrence,type,or grade of irAEs in clinical practice.Evidence of a correlation between safety and efficacy may facilitate a complete assessment of the risk-benefit ratio for patients treated with ICIs.

Biomarkers associated with immune-related adverse events induced by immune checkpoint inhibitors

Immune checkpoint inhibitors(ICIs)constitute a pivotal class of immunotherapeutic drugs in cancer treatment.However,their widespread clinical application has led to a notable surge in immune-related adverse events(irAEs),significantly affecting the efficacy and survival rates of patients undergoing ICI therapy.While conventional hematological and imaging tests are adept at detecting organ-specific toxicities,distinguishing adverse reactions from those induced by viruses,bacteria,or immune diseases remains a formidable challenge.Consequently,there exists an urgent imperative for reliable biomarkers capable of accurately predicting or diagnosing irAEs.Thus,a thorough review of existing studies on irAEs biomarkers is indispensable.Our review commences by providing a succinct over-view of major irAEs,followed by a comprehensive summary of irAEs biomarkers across various dimensions.Furthermore,we delve into innovative methodologies such as machine learning,single-cell RNA sequencing,multiomics analysis,and gut microbiota profiling to identify novel,robust biomarkers that can facilitate precise irAEs diagnosis or prediction.Lastly,this review furnishes a concise exposition of irAEs mechanisms to augment understanding of irAEs prediction,diagnosis,and treatment strategies.

关注免疫检查点抑制剂发生irAE后免疫治疗再挑战

免疫检查点抑制剂(immune-checkpoint inhibitors,ICIs)是近年来肿瘤学领域最重要的突破之一,为不同类型的实体瘤治疗提供了新的范式。ICIs通过阻断免疫内在下调因子,如细胞毒性T淋巴细胞抗原4(CTLA-4)和程序性细胞死亡1(PD-1)或其配体程序性细胞死亡配体1(PD-L1),增加抗肿瘤免疫力[1]。然而,由于免疫应答增强和免疫系统失衡,患者可能会发生免疫相关不良事件(immune-related adverse events,irAE)。

Advances on immune-related adverse events associated with immune checkpoint inhibitors

Immunotherapy has recently led to a paradigm shift in cancer therapy,in which immune checkpoint inhibitors(ICIs)are the most successful agents approved for multiple advanced malignancies.However,given the nature of the non-specific activation of effector T cells,ICIs are remarkably associated with a substantial risk of immune-related adverse events(irAEs)in almost all organs or systems.Up to 90%of patients who received ICIs combination therapy experienced irAEs,of which majority were low-grade toxicity.Cytotoxic lymphocyte antigen-4 and programmed cell death protein-1/programmed cell death ligand 1 inhibitors usually display distinct features of irAEs.In this review,the mechanisms of action of ICIs and how they may cause irAEs are described.Some unsolved challenges,however really engrossing issues,such as the association between irAEs and cancer treatment response,tumor response to irAEs therapy,and ICIs in challenging populations,are comprehensively summarized.

Delayed immune-related sclerosing cholangitis after discontinuation of pembrolizumab:A case report

BACKGROUND Secondary sclerosing cholangitis,characterized by biliary obstruction,can be caused by drugs such as immune checkpoint inhibitors(ICIs).While there a few reports of sclerosing cholangitis after immune checkpoint inhibitor administration,no case has been reported after discontinuation of such drugs.CASE SUMMARY A 68-year-old man who underwent chemotherapy for lung adenocarcinoma with bone metastasis presented with abdominal pain and fever 4 mo after the final administration of pembrolizumab.Computed tomography revealed thickening of the gallbladder wall and dilatation of the common bile duct.Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography revealed an irregularly narrowed intrahepatic bile duct.Biopsy of the bile duct demonstrated that CD8+T cells were predominant over CD4+T cells.Liver biopsy showed dominant infiltration of CD8+T in the portal tract,but onion-skin lesions were not observed.The patient was diagnosed with immune-related sclerosing cholangitis induced by pembrolizumab.Administration of methylprednisolone and endoscopic nasobiliary drainage were performed,but the cholangiography and laboratory test findings did not improve.No further treatment was administered due to disease progression,and the patient was referred for palliative care.CONCLUSION Immune-related sclerosing cholangitis may have a late onset,and such cases occurring after discontinuation of ICIs should be carefully managed.

Immune Checkpoint Inhibitor Related Neuropathic Adverse Effects on Cancer Patients

With the recent development and clinical application, immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) intervention is being increasingly common for multiple malignancies. With these, prospect on focus creates an increasing necessity for an early recognition with proper documentation of upcoming treatment-related toxicities. These treatment-related toxicities are generally termed as immune-related adverse effects (irAEs) [1]. It is a known fact that the upregulation of T-cell initiates autoimmunity resulting in these irAEs. The review focuses on increasing events of neuropathy associated with immunecheckpoint inhibitors, which is one of the rare neurological irAEs, therefore, the least reviewed. The severity and distribution of neurologic toxicities are important deciding factors for its management (CNS vs. PNS), although there is no strong evidence for patients treated with ICIs are specifically affected by the use of immune-modulating interventions. Furthermore, the review discusses on pathophysiology, incidence, clinical presentation, diagnosis, and management of neuropathies as a result of ICIs. Early administration of high-dose corticosteroids is the main management of neuropathies especially for grade 3 or 4 irAEs initial cessation of ICI therapy with continued steroids which are necessary. However, the optimal duration of ICI therapy to minimize the risk of toxicity should be kept under consideration.

Pathogenesis,pathological characteristics and individualized therapy for immune-related adverse effects

Immune checkpoint inhibitors(ICIs)are a class of antitumor medications that target immune checkpoints,which induce the activation of lymphocytes.These treatments effectively prolong the survival of patients with advanced tumors,especially lung cancer.However,in addition to tumor killing effects,ICIs may also cause an imbalance between immune tolerance and immunity.Over-activated lymphocytes may cause various types of damage to multiple organs throughout the body,called immune-related adverse events.In this review,we summarize the pathogenesis,pathological characteristics,biomarkers,and therapeutic agents for immune-related adverse events.

非小细胞肺癌患者免疫检查点抑制剂相关性肺炎与免疫检查点抑制剂疗效相关性分析

目的:探讨免疫检查点抑制剂(ICI)治疗非小细胞肺癌(NSCLC)患者发生免疫检查点抑制剂相关性肺炎(CIP)的发生情况和免疫治疗疗效的关系,分析接受ICI治疗的NSCLC患者的预后相关因素。方法:回顾性分析2020年3月至2023年3月在新疆医科大学附属肿瘤医院接受ICI治疗145例NSCLC患者的临床资料,将患者分为CIP组和非CIP组,随后将发生CIP的患者分为轻度(1、2级)CIP和重度(3、4级)CIP两个亚组,通过Kaplan-Meier法比较生存曲线,分析CIP的发生及严重程度对于患者PFS及OS的影响。通过单因素及多因素COX风险比例回归模型分析与PFS和OS相关的预后因素。结果:145例患者中有26例患者出现CIP,发生率为17.93%,重度CIP发生率为3.45%。CIP组患者PFS明显长于非CIP组患者(12.3 vs 7.6个月,P<0.05),CIP组与非CIP组的OS比较差异无统计学意义(16.2 vs 15.8个月,P>0.05)。亚组分析显示,轻度CIP和重度CIP相比,PFS(12.2vs 12.9个月)及OS(16.1 vs 17.8个月)均无统计学意义(均P>0.05)。多因素COX回归分析显示,CIP[HR=0.55,95%CI(0.33,0.90),P=0.02]、免疫疗程>6个[HR=0.51,95%CI(0.31,0.85),P=0.01]是影响患者PFS的有利预后因素,免疫疗程>6个[HR=0.4,95%CI(0.18,0.88),P=0.02]是影响OS的有利预后因素。结论:CIP的发生率为17.93%,CIP的发生与PFS的延长密切相关。免疫疗程>6个是影响NSCLC患者PFS、OS的有利预后因素。

424例替雷利珠单抗致免疫相关不良事件分析

目的对使用替雷利珠单抗进行免疫治疗的肿瘤患者临床资料进行回顾性研究,总结分析其免疫相关不良事件(immune-related adverse events,irAEs)的发生规律和特点,制定合理的应对措施,为临床早期识别和合理应对提供参考。方法回顾性分析2021年10月1日至2023年9月30日南京医科大学第一附属医院使用替雷利珠单抗免疫治疗恶性肿瘤患者的临床资料,包括患者年龄、性别、所患疾病、合并用药、irEAs发生时间、临床表现、毒性分级和临床处置信息,总结其致irAEs的规律和特点。结果收集的424例使用替雷利珠单抗患者中,181例(42.69%)未发生irAEs,243例(57.31%)患者共发生364例次irAEs;发生1例次irAEs的有163例(67.08%),发生2例次及2例次以上irAEs的有80例(32.92%)。发生的irAEs累及系统-器官11种,排名前5位分别是内分泌系统异常161例次(44.23%)、血液系统异常51例次(14.01%)、消化系统损害33例次(9.07%)、心血管系统29例次(7.97%),皮肤及其附件19例次(5.22%)。irAEs为G1~G2级的共345例次(94.78%),经对症处理后好转;G3级14例次(3.85%),需要住院治疗;G4级5例次(1.37%),涉及危害生命需抢救和治疗;未出现irAEs导致的死亡病例。结论替雷利珠单抗致irAEs可累计全身多种系统-器官,总体来说可以监测和管控,但若不及时采取干预措施可造成患者严重损伤。临床应实现对其早期监测,尽早识别并采取合理应对措施以保障患者用药安全。

中药联合免疫检查点抑制剂治疗Ⅲ-Ⅳ期非小细胞肺癌的安全性观察

【目的】分析中药联合免疫检查点抑制剂(immune checkpoint inhibitors,ICIs)治疗Ⅲ-Ⅳ期非小细胞肺癌(non-small cell lung cancer,NSCLC)的安全性,探讨ICIs治疗Ⅲ-Ⅳ期NSCLC发生免疫相关不良事件(immune-related adverse events,irAEs)的影响因素。【方法】回顾性分析2019年9月1日至2022年8月31日在广东省中医院大学城医院肿瘤科确诊为Ⅲ-Ⅳ期NSCLC并接受中药联合ICIs治疗的住院患者的中医证型分布、相关用药信息以及irAEs发生情况等,并进行不良反应级别及可能的影响因素分析。【结果】(1)90例NSCLC患者共涉及ICIs单药、ICIs联合化疗、ICIs联合抗血管生成药物、ICIs联合化疗及抗血管生成药物4种治疗方案,其中以ICIs联合化疗及抗血管生成药物的治疗例数最多(52例,49.1%);共使用8种不同的ICIs药物,其中以替雷利珠单抗占比最高(43例,40.6%)。(2)将所有患者分为气虚痰瘀证、痰瘀阻络证、气阴两虚证、气血亏虚证、痰热蕴结证5种证型,其中以气虚痰瘀证为最多(80例,88.9%)。(3)irAEs总体发生率为38.9%(35/90),其中发生G3及以上irAEs的患者仅占5.6%(5/90)。初次发生irAEs的免疫治疗疗程主要集中在1~3程(17例,48.6%)。ICIs单药治疗的患者出现G3及以上irAEs发生率高于联合治疗(33.3%vs 3.6%)。(4)美国东部肿瘤协作组的功能状态(performence status,PS)评分为0~1分(OR=8.218,95%CI:1.607-42.023,P=0.011)和有肾上腺转移(OR=4.497,95%CI:1.237-16.354,P=0.022)是ICIs治疗Ⅲ-Ⅳ期NSCLC发生irAEs的独立危险因素(均P<0.05)。【结论】中药有降低ICIs治疗Ⅲ-Ⅳ期NSCLC不良反应的潜在可能;PS评分为0~1分和有肾上腺转移可能是ICIs治疗Ⅲ-Ⅳ期NSCLC发生irAEs的独立危险因素。

Application of immune checkpoint inhibitors and microsatellite instability in gastric cancer

In this editorial we comment on the article by Li published in the recent issue of the World Journal of Gastroenterology.We focus specifically on the application of immune checkpoint inhibitors(ICIs)and microsatellite instability(MSI)in gastric cancer(GC).The four pillars of GC management have long been considered,including surgery,chemotherapy,radiotherapy and targeted therapy.However,immunotherapy has recently emerged as a“fifth pillar”,and its use is rapidly expanding.There are four principal strategies for tumor immunotherapy:ICIs,tumor vaccines,adoptive immunotherapy and nonspecific immunomodulators.Of them,ICIs are the most advanced and widespread type of cancer immunotherapy for GC.Recent breakthrough results for ICIs have paved the way to a new era of cancer immunotherapy.In particular,inhibition of the PD-1/PD-L1 axis with ICIs,including nivolumab and pembrolizumab,has emerged as a novel treatment strategy for advanced GC.Unfortunately,these therapies are sometimes associated with often subtle,potentially fatal immune-related adverse events(irAEs),including dermatitis,diarrhea,colitis,endocrinopathy,hepatotoxicity,neuropathy and pneumonitis.We must be aware of these irAEs and improve the detection of these processes to prevent inappropriate discharges,emergency department revisits,and downstream complications.Recent studies have revealed that MSI-high or mismatch-repair-deficient tumors,regardless of their primary site,have a promising response to ICIs.So,it is important to detect MSI before applying ICIs for treatment of GC.

Untoward immune effects of modern medication

Immune-related adverse events(irAEs)represent an increasingly concerning challenge in the assessment of biopharmaceutical products.In contrast to historically rare allergic reactions associated with small chemical drugs,contemporary biotherapeutics exhibit a significantly higher morbidity of irAEs,because of their complex structure and comprehensive mechanisms of action.While the immunogenicity of protein-based compounds is associated with the induction of anti-drug antibodies,the pathogenesis of irAEs in advanced biologics,such as cell and gene therapy,remains to be further delineated.In the current study,I present an updated profile regarding the untoward immune effects of medications,covering various material categories systematically,with the underlying mechanisms to inspire risk mitigation in biopharmaceutical development and application.

Immune checkpoint inhibitor-associated gastritis:Patterns and management

Immune checkpoint inhibitors(ICIs)are widely used due to their effectiveness in treating various tumors.Immune-related adverse events(irAEs)are defined as adverse effects resulting from ICI treatment.Gastrointestinal irAEs are a common type of irAEs characterized by intestinal side effects,such as diarrhea and colitis,which may lead to the cessation of ICIs.Although irAE gastritis is rarely reported,it may lead to serious complications such as gastrorrhagia.Furthermore,irAE gastritis is often difficult to identify early due to its diverse symptoms.Although steroid hormones and immunosuppressants are commonly used to reverse irAEs,the best regimen and dosage for irAE gastritis remains uncertain.In addition,the risk of recurrence of irAE gastritis after the reuse of ICIs should be considered.In this editorial,strategies such as early identification,pathological diagnosis,mana-gement interventions,and immunotherapy rechallenge are discussed to enable clinicians to better manage irAE gastritis and improve the prognosis of these patients.

Development of a Functional Assessment of Chronic Illness Therapy item library and primary symptom list for the assessment of patient-reported adverse events associated with immune checkpoint modulators

Aim:To develop a comprehensive item library of patient-reported,immunotherapy-related adverse events(irAEs)that draws from and expands on the Functional Assessment of Chronic Illness Therapy(FACIT)Measurement System.Methods:Literature review and iterative expert input.Based on a literature review of irAEs,we developed a framework of immunotherapy classes and their associated symptoms.Clinical experts then reviewed iterations of symptom summaries and item maps linked to the immunotherapy framework.Experts provided content review and feedback was shared across experts until consensus was reached.The iterative process facilitated creation of a Primary Symptom List associated with immune checkpoint modulators(ICMs),drawn from the larger set of symptoms.Existing FACIT items were mapped to the symptom list,and new items were written as needed to create the item library.Results:The full item library of irAEs is comprised of 239 items,covering 142 unique symptoms across 75 inflammatory reactions/immune conditions.A subset of 66 items comprises a Primary Symptom List considered most common/relevant to ICM treatment.This includes gastrointestinal,skin,pulmonary,neurologic,musculoskeletal,and multiple miscellaneous and constitutional symptoms.Conclusion:The FACIT Immunotherapy Item Library is a compilation of 239 self-report items that capture the wide range of AEs experienced by people receiving immune treatments.A subset of 66 items comprises a Primary Symptom List meant for ICM therapy.Use of items selected from this library is encouraged in clinical research and clinical practice evaluation.

免疫检查点抑制剂相关胆管型肝毒性发生机制及治疗策略

肿瘤免疫检查点抑制剂(ICI)治疗近年来因疗效显著而备受瞩目。ICI引起的免疫介导肝毒性(IMH)是一类较常见的免疫相关不良反应(irAE),但IMH中的一种亚分型,胆管型IMH(BIMH),却是一种少见的、对其认知极不充分、缺乏诊疗规范的irAE,存在临床隐患。BIMH以胆管酶显著升高、高胆红素血症为临床特点,组织病理学表现为胆管炎症、胆管损伤和消失。胆汁淤积阶段的BIMH对于免疫抑制治疗反应不佳,预后差。提高对BIMH的认识,早期诊断和干预是提高BIMH预后的关键。对BIMH流行病学特征、临床特征、组织病理学特点和发生机制及BIMH全程管理中存在之问题等认识的不断提高,有助于提出针对BIMH的有效诊疗策略。

PD-1/PD-L1抑制剂治疗乳腺癌:现状、问题与对策

PD-1/PD-L1抑制剂在乳腺癌免疫治疗中的应用已逐渐成为一种重要的治疗手段,然而对乳腺癌,尤其是三阴性乳腺癌(TNBC)的免疫治疗仍存在某些亟待解决的科学问题,包括PD-1/PD-L1抑制剂单药治疗的有效率欠佳,目前尚无明确的生物标志物来有效筛查治疗敏感人群,免疫相关不良反应(irAE)的发生率高。为了提高疗效和减少irAE的发生,采取以下措施是非常重要的:探讨PD-1/PD-L1抑制剂与其他药物的联合应用方案;采用纳米技术开发选择性靶向肿瘤细胞的纳米载体,降低抗肿瘤药物毒性并提高疗效;探寻开发可预测免疫治疗反应潜力的生物标志物;早期识别和诊疗irAE并建设多学科诊疗协作组(MDT)模式。随着这些措施的积极推进和问题的不断解决,PD-1/PD-L1抑制剂在乳腺癌的治疗中必将呈现出更为广阔的应用前景。