Impact of effective stress on permeability for carbonate fractured-vuggy rocks

To gain insight into the flow mechanisms and stress sensitivity for fractured-vuggy reservoirs,several core models with different structural characteristics were designed and fabricated to investigate the impact of effective stress on permeability for carbonate fractured-vuggy rocks(CFVR).It shows that the permeability performance curves under different pore and confining pressures(i.e.altered stress conditions)for the fractured core models and the vuggy core models have similar change patterns.The ranges of permeability variation are significantly wider at high pore pressures,indicating that permeability reduction is the most significant during the early stage of development for fractured-vuggy reservoirs.Since each obtained effective stress coefficient for permeability(ESCP)varies with the changes in confining pressure and pore pressure,the effective stresses for permeability of four representative CFVR show obvious nonlinear characteristics,and the variation ranges of ESCP are all between 0 and 1.Meanwhile,a comprehensive ESCP mathematical model considering triple media,including matrix pores,fractures,and dissolved vugs,was proposed.It is proved theoretically that the ESCP of CFVR generally varies between 0 and 1.Additionally,the regression results showed that the power model ranked highest among the four empirical models mainly applied in stress sensitivity characterization,followed by the logarithmic model,exponential model,and binomial model.The concept of“permeability decline rate”was introduced to better evaluate the stress sensitivity performance for CFVR,in which the one-fracture rock is the strongest,followed by the fracture-vug rock and two-horizontalfracture rock;the through-hole rock is the weakest.In general,this study provides a theoretical basis to guide the design of development and adjustment programs for carbonate fractured-vuggy reservoirs.

Research on Quantitative Identification of Three-Dimensional Connectivity of Fractured-Vuggy Reservoirs

The fractured-vuggy carbonate oil resources in the western basin of China are extremely rich.The connectivity of carbonate reservoirs is complex,and there is still a lack of clear understanding of the development and topological structure of the pore space in fractured-vuggy reservoirs.Thus,effective prediction of fractured-vuggy reservoirs is difficult.In view of this,this work employs adaptive point cloud technology to reproduce the shape and capture the characteristics of a fractured-vuggy reservoir.To identify the complex connectivity among pores,fractures,and vugs,a simplified one-dimensional connectivity model is established by using the meshless connection element method(CEM).Considering that different types of connection units have different flow characteristics,a sequential coupling calculation method that can efficiently calculate reservoir pressure and saturation is developed.By automatic history matching,the dynamic production data is fitted in real-time,and the characteristic parameters of the connection unit are inverted.Simulation results show that the three-dimensional connectivity model of the fractured-vuggy reservoir built in this work is as close as 90%of the fine grid model,while the dynamic simulation efficiency is much higher with good accuracy.

Utilization mechanism of foam flooding and distribution situation of residual oil in fractured-vuggy carbonate reservoirs

The development of fractured-vuggy carbonate reservoirs is extremely difficult because of the complex fractured-vuggy structure and strong heterogeneity.Foam flooding is a potential enhanced oil recovery(EOR)technology in fractured-vuggy carbonate reservoirs.Based on the similarity criterion,three types of 2D visual physical models of the fractured-vuggy structure were made by laser ablation technique,and a 3D visual physical model of the fractured-vuggy reservoir was made by 3D printing technology.Then the physical analog experiments of foam flooding were carried out in these models.The experimental results show that foam can effectively improve the mobility ratio,control the flow velocity of the fluid in different directions,and sweep complex fracture networks.The effect of foam flooding in fractures can be improved by increasing foam strength and enhancing foam stability.The effect of foam flooding in vugs can be improved by reducing the density of the foam and the interfacial tension between foam and oil.Three types of microscopic residual oil and three types of macroscopic residual oil can be displaced by foam flooding.This study verifies the EOR of foam flooding in the fractured-vuggy reservoir and provides theoretical support for the application of foam flooding in fractured-vuggy reservoirs.

基于用高斯分布生成管道的岩溶地下水流数值模拟

为更精确地模拟岩溶区地下水运动,以贵州省黔西南普安县某岩溶水文地质单元为研究区,用基于有限单元法的FEFLOW软件建立研究区岩溶管道等效多孔介质耦合地下水流数值模拟模型。模拟中,在地质条件控制下应用高斯随机分布生成地下暗河的管道,用非稳定三维地下水运动的偏微分方程描述等效多孔介质水流运动,用Manning-Strickler方程描述管道水流运动,将导水断层处理为强渗透条块,将落水洞汇水范围的降水入渗系数设置为1,将泉水处理为定水头的抽水井。流场模拟结果显示,25个观测点计算水位与实测水位关系的决定系数可达到0.9985,纳西效率系数达0.9982,极接近于1;表明基于这些处理建立的地下水模拟模型反映了岩溶地下水运动特征,具有较强的仿真能力,可用于提高岩溶区地下水资源评价精度。

广东龙门地区岩溶热储特征及地热系统成因

中国广东省地热资源丰富,岩溶热储分布广泛,极具勘探开发潜力.研究岩溶型地热系统成因对广东省乃至中国南方岩溶型地热资源的勘探开发利用具指导意义.采用地质调查、钻井测量和水文地球化学等方法,多视角系统性地研究广东龙门地区岩溶型地热田特征及其形成机理.结果表明,龙门地区岩溶热储层主要赋存在龙门和永汉等断拗陷盆地的下石炭统石磴子组(C1sh)和上泥盆统天子岭组(D3t)碳酸盐岩层中,以岩溶溶洞裂隙热水为主,埋藏浅,主热储层埋深0~300 m.地热流体化学类型以HCO_(3)-Ca·Na型和HCO_(3)-Ca型为主,其次为SO_(4)-Ca·Na型和HCO_(3)·SO_(4)-Na型,溶解性总固体85~1 284 mg/L,实测水温为25.4~79.9℃.热水氢氧同位素组成表明,大气降水为主要的补给来源,补给高程为57~584 m;13C同位素分析表明,地热水中碳的来源具有多重性,未受到碳酸盐变质作用的影响,根据14C方法测定地热水的年龄介于1.62~14.29 ka.二氧化硅(玉髓)温标热储温度为72~120℃,循环深度为1 814~3 504m.热储受断裂带和碳酸盐岩层位控制,总体呈带状兼层状,热源为相对较高的大地热流和花岗岩体的放射性生热.以上认识揭示了广东龙门地区岩溶热储特征及地热系统成因机理.

耦合CO_(2)脱气的岩溶地热水结垢趋势定量分析

岩溶地热系统是最具开发潜力的水热型地热系统之一,在水热型地热资源利用中,地热水结垢(尤其是井下结垢)是目前面临的最普遍、最重要的问题之一,制约着地热水资源可持续利用。针对岩溶地热水结垢趋势分析方法存在的不足,在重点考虑CO_(2)脱气这一重要过程对结垢趋势影响的基础上,利用化学热力学模拟技术构建了一种耦合CO_(2)脱气过程的结垢趋势定量分析的改进方法,并将其应用于南京汤山岩溶地热区。结果表明汤山地区地热水不具有发生SiO 2结垢的趋势;在井口有发生碳酸盐结垢趋势,主要成分为CaCO_(3);井筒中下部有发生不同程度的硫酸盐结垢趋势,主要成分为CaSO_(4),SrSO_(4),BaSO_(4)。本研究在改进结垢趋势分析方法不足的同时,为防垢除垢工作提供了理论基础和方法指导,可有力促进地热水资源的可持续利用。

岩溶热储合理采灌井距的热突破约束——以菏泽地热田为例

与煤炭、石油、天然气等传统化石能源相比,地热能具有资源储量大、分布广、可再生、开采条件好等优点。菏泽潜凸起地热田是山东省主要大型碳酸盐岩岩溶热储地热田之一,地热资源储量丰富。为保证地热资源可持续开发利用,本文基于郓城县武安府前小区、文昌苑社区岩溶热储地热采灌井全井段地温场长期动态监测,阐述了地温场变化规律及演化趋势,建立水-热耦合采灌对井数值模型,计算回灌工程合理采灌井距、合理采灌量,防止开采井运行期内发生热突破。结果表明,随着回灌年限的延长,回灌井周围热储温度逐年降低,回灌冷水影响范围逐渐扩大。将开采井热储温度降低1℃视为热突破,利用数值模型模拟预测,回灌低温冷水影响范围随采灌工程运行逐渐扩展并到达开采井附近。随着采灌量的增加或采灌井间距的减小,开采井周边的低温范围逐渐增大,产生热突破的时间逐渐缩短。热突破时间t与回灌量Q呈幂函数减小、与采灌井间距R呈指数函数增长。采灌量50 m^(3)/h,采灌井距大于350 m可保证对井系统运行100年不发生热突破;采灌量70 m^(3)/h、90 m^(3)/h、120 m^(3)/h、150 m^(3)/h、180 m^(3)/h时,100年不发生热突破的合理采灌井距分别为400 m、425 m、475 m、500 m、550 m。该结论为采灌井合理布局、地热资源可持续循环开发提供科学依据。

岩溶热储古岩溶发育机制与地热水富集模式

明晰岩溶储层古岩溶发育机制、形成演化及发育特征对揭示地热资源赋存特征与富集规律具有重要意义。以济南北地热田为例,在厘清奥陶纪马家沟群地层层序及沉积相特征基础上,通过地表岩溶、钻孔揭露地下岩溶发育特征及富水性分布规律的分析,研究岩溶热储古岩溶作用类型及发育机制,重塑济南北地热田岩溶发育与演化过程并阐明强岩溶发育与地热水富集模式。结果表明:同生岩溶、古风化壳岩溶、埋藏岩溶等三级岩溶发育过程驱动控制区域岩溶的分布层位及发育程度,构造岩溶驱动控制裂隙岩溶发育强度,重力势能驱动控制地热水循环深度和岩溶发育深度;奥陶系顶板以下320 m深度范围内,层间岩溶与构造岩溶复合处、层间岩溶与侵入岩体接触带是强岩溶发育带和地热水富集带。

Three-dimensional physical simulation and optimization of water injection of a multi-well fractured-vuggy unit

With complex fractured-vuggy heterogeneous structures, water has to be injected to facilitate oil pro- duction. However, the effect of different water injection modes on oil recovery varies. The limitation of existing numerical simulation methods in representing fractured- vuggy carbonate reservoirs makes numerical simulation difficult to characterize the fluid flow in these reservoirs. In this paper, based on a geological example unit in the Tahe Oilfield, a three-dimensional physical model was designed and constructed to simulate fluid flow in a fractured-vuggy reservoir according to similarity criteria. The model was validated by simulating a bottom water drive reservoir, and then subsequent water injection modes were optimized. These were continuous （constant rate）, intermittent, and pulsed injection of water. Experimental results reveal that due to the unbalanced formation pressure caused by pulsed water injection, the swept volume was expanded and consequently the highest oil recovery increment was achieved. Similar to continuous water injection, intermit- tent injection was influenced by factors including the connectivity of the fractured-vuggy reservoir, well depth, and the injection-production relationship, which led to a relative low oil recovery. This study may provide a constructive guide to field production and for the devel- opment of the commercial numerical models specialized for fractured-vuggy carbonate reservoirs.

Water quality assessment of benthic diatom communities for water quality in the subalpine karstic lakes of Jiuzhaigou,a world heritage site in China

Jiuzhaigou, characterized by its magnificent waterscapes and subalpine karstic features, is both a World Heritage Site and a World Biosphere Reserve in southwestern China. In recent years, this unique ecosystem has shown signs of stress due to increasing tourism activities within the reserve. The various routine methods, which monitor physical and chemical properties, do not fully reflect water quality in the subalpine and alpine lakes, while the indicators using aquatic organisms to evaluate the water quality or status of the subalpine lakes are poorly reported. Thus, in this study, benthic diatoms from multiple habitats in Jiuzhaigou were sampled and assessed for water quality monitoring. Canonical Correspondence Analysis （CCA） showed that the canonical coefficients for elevation, water temperature and total nitrogen on the first Canonical Corresnondence Analysis axis were -0.84. 0.78 and -0.53, respectively, environmental variables associated with the distribution patterns of benthic diatoms. The dominance of diatom taxa indicative of nutrient enrichment indicates a clear trend toward eutrophication in the Pearl Shoal and Colorful Lake, two of the sites mostly visited by tourists. It was observed that the effect of the type of substratum on diatom community composition is not significant in subalpine lakes. The most dominant species in Jiuzhaigou lakes are the genera Achnanthes, Fragilaria, CymbeUa, Cocconeis, Diatoma and Denticula. In combination with dominant and sensitive species in the benthic diatom communities, CCA and CA methods can be used to evaluate the impact of human activities on subalpine karstic lakes. The dominance of diatom taxa is indicative of nutrient enrichment and the results of CCA and CA indicate a clear trend toward eutrophication in the Pearl Shoal and Colorful Lake, two of the sites mostly visited by tourists.

Experiments on nitrogen assisted gravity drainage in fractured-vuggy reservoirs

Visual models of fractured-vuggy reservoirs were designed and manufactured to conduct experiments of nitrogen assisted gravity drainage(NAGD). The impacts of flooding pattern, gas injection rate, well type, and displacement direction(vertical or horizontal) on development performances and remaining oil distribution were studied. The results show that during NAGD, the sweep scope is decided by the connections between producer and reservoir, and the local sweep efficiency is decided by fracture-vuggy configuration. The homogenous fractured reservoir has higher oil recovery, and the bigger the aperture of fracture is, the higher the recovery. The main regions of remaining oil due to poor connectivity and gas-oil gravity difference include blind fractures and vugs below the connected fractures, the bottom of vugs, and the narrow and low-angle fractures. The accumulation of remaining oil in the bottom of reservoir is easily formed and controlled by the connections between producers and reservoir. The higher the gas injection rate and the stronger the fracture heterogeneity, the earlier the gas channeling and the lower the oil recovery of the producer will be.Horizontal wells have the best development effect, so horizontal well can be applied in fractured-vuggy reservoirs without bottom water.Producers should be preferentially drilled at low structural position. Gas channeling firstly occurs in the producer at high structural position, and it should be shut in timely to improve the utilization of injected gas.

Inter-well interferences and their influencing factors during water flooding in fractured-vuggy carbonate reservoirs

Based on the characteristics of injection-production units in fractured-vuggy carbonate reservoirs,nine groups of experiments were designed and performed to analyze the interference characteristics and their influencing factors during water flooding.Based on percolation theory,an inversion model for simulating waterflooding interferences was proposed to study the influence laws of different factors on interference characteristics.The results show that well spacing,permeability ratio,cave size,and cave location all affect the interference characteristics of water flooding.When the cave is located in high permeability fractures,or in the small well spacing direction,or close to the producer in an injection-production unit,the effects of water flooding are much better.When the large cave is located in the high-permeability or small well spacing direction,the well in the direction with lower permeability or smaller well spacing will see water breakthrough earlier.When the cave is in the higher permeability direction and the reserves between the water injector and producer differ greatly,the conductivity differences in different injection-production directions are favorable for water flooding.When the injection-production well pattern is constructed or recombined,it’s better to make the reserves of caves in different injection-production directions proportional to permeability,and inversely proportional to the well spacing.The well close to the cave should be a producer,and the well far from the cave should be an injector.Different ratios of cave reserves to fracture reserves correspond to different optimal well spacings and optimal permeability ratios.Moreover,both optimal well spacing and optimal permeability ratio increase as the ratio of cave reserves to fracture reserves increases.

Lost circulation material for abnormally high temperature and pressure fractured-vuggy carbonate reservoirs in Tazhong block, Tarim Basin, NW China

To effectively solve the problem of lost circulation and well kick frequently occurring during the drilling of abnormally high temperature and pressure fractured-vuggy reservoirs in the Tazhong block, a rigid particle material, GZD, with high temperature tolerance, high rigidity(> 8 MPa) and low abrasiveness has been selected based on geological characteristics of the theft zones in the reservoirs. Through static pressure sealing experiments, its dosage when used alone and when used in combination with lignin fiber, elastic material SQD-98 and calcium carbonate were optimized, and the formula of a new type(SXM-I) of compound lost circulation material with high temperature tolerance and high strength was formed. Its performance was evaluated by compatibility test, static sealing experiment and sand bed plugging experiment. The test results show that it has good compatibility with drilling fluid used commonly and is able to plug fractures and vugs, the sealed fractures are able to withstand the static pressure of more than 9 MPa and the cumulative leakage is 13.4 mL. The mud filtrate invasion depth is only 2.5 cm in 30 min when the sand bed is made of particles with sizes between 10 mesh and 20 mesh. Overall, with good sealing property and high temperature and high pressure tolerance, the lost circulation material provides strong technical support for the safety drilling in the block.

Blasting practices in a quarry with karstic cavities

The blasting practices in a limestone quarry with karstic cavities have beenpresented. The existence of karstic cavities in the quarry has reduced blasting efficiencysignificantly. In order to improve blasting efficiency different blasting strategies (loading holeswith ANFO in plastic bag, recording cavity location along the holes and charging the holes accordingto this information, and modifying blasting pattern according to karstic cavities) had beenimplemented and the results were evaluated on per ton cost basis. It was concluded that efficientblasting in such aquarries requires determining the size and shape of karstic cavities and based onthis information, to modify the blast pattern and charge the holes. The suggested method is torecord the cavity along the drill hole and to generate 3D model of cavities. By doing this, theproduction cost in the limestone quarry has decreased from 0.407 dollars/t to 0.354 dollars/t.

Practice and knowledge of volumetric development of deep fractured-vuggy carbonate reservoirs in Tarim Basin, NW China

Different from the continental layered sandstone and fracture-pore carbonate reservoirs, the fractured-vuggy carbonate reservoirs in the Tarim Basin are mainly composed of fractured-vuggy bodies of different sizes and shapes. Based on years of study on the geological features, flow mechanisms, high-precision depiction and the recovery mode of fractured-vuggy bodies, the idea of “volumetric development” is proposed and put into practice. A “body by body” production methodology is established with respect to volumetric unit of fractures and vugs based on vuggy body’s spatial allocation and reserves. A variety of development wells, various technological methods, and multi-type injection media are used to develop this type of reservoirs in an all-around way. As a result, the resource and production structures of the Tahe oilfield are significantly improved and a highly efficient development is achieved.

Studying Subsidence Coefficient of Mirages and Dynamic Storage Volume of Karstic Springs of Khorram Abad, West of Iran

The studied subject is about subsidence coefficient of mirages and dynamic storage volume of Karstic springs in Khorram Abad in West of Iran. Subsidence coefficient indicates ability of groundwater discharge and hydrologic properties of the environment;meaning effective porosity and transfer coefficient of springs. In general, in developed Karstic zones, each direct line of subsidence curve indicates a discharge regime. Obtained results from the study show that subsidence branch of Golestan, Motahari, Niloofar (changaei), Navekech, Dore Robat mirages have subsidence coefficient with mild slope and low value, which demonstrate passage of water through a seams system at the karst springs. Q and whirlpool stone mirages have two subsidence coefficients, which indicate passage of water through two seam systems in Karstic environment of springs. According to obtained results, process of changes in subsidence branch in these mirages has had at the first a mild slope and low discharge coefficient and in continue, its discharge would be declined with sharper slope and high discharge coefficient. In order to estimate dynamic storage volume of springs, MAILET general equation is applied, which is suitable for subsidence branch of hydrographs of centralized springs discharge. Following, dynamic storage volume of studied springs is analyzed and obtained results are presented in this study respectively.

The mechanism and criterion of tectonic zone around karstic collapse column reactivation-induced water-conducting

In order to study the mechanism of tectonic zone around karstic collapse col-umn reacts to leak water and prevent water invasion in mine. According to the character of the surrounding cracks- penetrated water KCC, The fracture mechanics theory can be used to study the propagation and perforation process of cracks and hitches around the KCC. The criterion of crack start rupture and the length of secondary crack and criterion of crack propagation have been attained. The influencing factors of KCC reacts to water con-duction were analyzed.

南堡凹陷及周边露头下古生界岩溶储集体特征及对比

南堡凹陷碳酸盐岩潜山是重要的深层油气勘探领域,具有埋藏深、时代老、构造运动复杂、多期岩溶作用的特点。依据唐山周边露头、南堡凹陷钻井、岩心、测井和地震资料,对比并分析露头和凹陷岩溶储集体特征。结果表明:唐山周边露头和南堡凹陷下古生界构造-岩溶背景基本一致,具有很好对比性,露头典型的断控岩溶储集体和岩溶塌陷体为南堡凹陷岩溶储层提供参考;南堡凹陷岩溶储层具有断控和坍塌双重特点,储层位于高角度张扭断裂上升盘,受联合坍塌作用影响岩溶储层范围可达不整合面之下170 m,储层段没有明显的空洞,具有裂缝密度增大、自然伽马升高、泥质含量增加的特点;缝洞充填物类型多样,垮塌角砾岩、碎屑充填砂泥岩较常见,不同类型的缝洞充填物对储层物性影响较大,其中碎屑充填物性较好;断控岩溶及联合坍塌作用,可形成孔-缝-洞复合的储集空间系统。

Mechanisms of remaining oil formation by water flooding and enhanced oil recovery by reversing water injection in fractured-vuggy reservoirs

To get a deeper understanding on the formation mechanisms and distribution laws of remaining oil during water flooding, and enhanced oil recovery(EOR) mechanisms by reversing water injection after water flooding, 3D visualization models of fractured-vuggy reservoir were constructed based on the elements and configuration of fractures and vugs, and typical fracture-vug structures by using advanced CT scanning and 3D printing technologies. Then, water flooding and reversing water injection experiments were conducted. The formation mechanisms of remaining oil during water flooding include inadequate injection-production well control, gravity difference between oil and water, interference between different flow channels, isolation by low connectivity channel, weak hydrodynamic force at the far end. Under the above effects, 7 kinds of remaining oil may come about, imperfect well-control oil, blind side oil, attic oil at the reservoir top, by-pass residual oil under gravity, by-pass residual oil in secondary channel, isolated oil in low connectivity channel, and remaining oil at far and weakly connected end. Some remaining oil can be recovered by reversing water injection after water flooding, but its EOR is related to the remaining oil type, fracture-cavity structure and reversing injection-production structure. Five of the above seven kinds of remaining oil can be produced by six EOR mechanisms of reversing water injection: gravity displacement, opening new flow channel, rising the outflow point, hydrodynamic force enhancement, vertically equilibrium displacement, and synergistic effect of hydrodynamic force and gravity.