Collaborative Efforts and Strategies for Cholera Outbreak Control in Garissa County, Kenya: Implementation of Water Quality Monitoring Interventions

A multi-faceted Case Area Targeted Intervention (CATI) approach emphasizing the integration of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) interventions and Oral Cholera Vaccine (OCV) campaign was employed to respond to the outbreak of cholera in Garissa County. Drinking water sources in areas heavily impacted by cholera were systematically mapped and tested for microbiological quality. The quality assessment was carried out in April 2023 during an ongoing cholera outbreak in the county. A total of 109 samples were collected and tested for thermotolerant coliforms and other in situ parameters. The finding revealed that more than 87% of the samples did not meet the World Health Organization (WHO) standard for thermotolerant coliforms;and 30% had turbidity values above the recommended threshold values. None of the 109 samples had any traceable residual chlorine. Following these findings, the county government implemented the targeted interventions which resulted in a positive impact in the fight against cholera. The WHO supported key interventions which included capacity building in water quality monitoring and prepositioning of critical WASH commodities to the cholera affected areas.

Depression&Anxiety Among Women in Northern Kenya:Sociodemographic Predictors

This article documents socio-demographic predictors of anxiety and depression among Maasai women in resource poor settings in Northern Kenya.These findings emerged from the findings of a dissertation research that aimed to establish the treatment effectiveness of an eclectic model of psychoeducation(PE)in treating depressive and anxiety symptoms among the women.The study adopted a quasi-experimental research design which had an experimental group(EG)and control group(CG).The population for the study was 686 female members of Conservation Enterprise Groups(CEG)in Laikipia County,from which a sample of 200 were recruited for the study(EG,n=100 and CG,n=100),at 80%power and 30%effective size.The Beck’s Depression Inventory(BDI)and Beck’s Anxiety Inventory(BAI)tools were used to assess the symptoms of depression and anxiety,respectively.The PE was provided as an intervention treatment to the EG at the middle and end of the study,after which the respondents were tested for symptoms of depression.The study established the prevalence of depression as 26.7%and 31.3%for anxiety and disorders,among women in the region.Data was analyzed using SPSS Version 21.0.

Low-Level Antibiotic Resistance among Staphylococcus aureus and Gram-Negative Pathogens from Infected Skin and Soft Tissues in Rural Kenya

Introduction: Bacterial skin and soft tissue infections (SSTIs) are a cause of frequent inpatient and outpatient care visits whose causative agents are associated with a high antimicrobial resistance burden. For insights on antimicrobial susceptibilities in a rural setting, we examined specimens from suspected SSTIs from two public health facilities in Kenya. We additionally assessed antibiotic use, appropriateness of empiric therapy and risk factors for SSTI. Methodology: Between 2021 and 2023, 265 patients at Kisii and Nyamira County Referral hospitals were enrolled. Wound swabs/aspirates were collected and processed following standard microbiological procedures. Identification and antimicrobial susceptibility were performed using the VITEK 2 Compact platform. Demographic, clinical, and microbiological data were analyzed with R Statistical software. Results: S. aureus was isolated in 16.2% (43/265) of patients with a methicillin resistance (MRSA) proportion of 14% (6/43). While 13/15 drugs elicited susceptibilities ranging from 84% - 100%, penicillin (16%) and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole [TMP-SXT] (23%) yielded the lowest susceptibilities. Escherichia coli (n = 33), Klebsiella pneumoniae (n = 8), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (n = 8), and Citrobacter species (n = 4) were the most commonly isolated gram-negative species. Gram-negative strains showed high susceptibilities to most of the tested drugs (71% - 100%) with the exception of ampicillin (18%), TMP-SXT (33%), and first and second generation cephalosporins. Conclusions: The low MRSA prevalence and generally high antibiotic susceptibilities for S. aureus and gram-negative bacteria present opportunities for antibiotic stewardship in the study setting. Diminished susceptibilities against penicillin/ampicillin and TMP-SXT accord with prevailing local data and add a layer of evidence for their cautious empiric use.

Seasonal Variability of Rainfall and Thunderstorm Patterns in Kenya

This paper presents an analysis of spatial and temporal variation of rainfall and thunderstorm occurrence over Ken-ya from January 1987 to December 2017.The meteorological data used were obtained from the Kenya Meteorological Department(KMD)for the same period.This included the monthly thunderstorm occurrences and rainfall amounts of 26 synoptic stations across the country.The characteristics of monthly,seasonal and annual frequency results were presented on spatial maps while Time series graphs were used to display the pattern for annual cycle,seasonal varia-tions and the inter-annual variability of rainfall amounts and thunderstorm occurrences.A well-known non-parametric statistical method Mann Kendall(MK)trend test was used to determine and compare the statistical significance of the trends.Thunderstorm frequencies over the Eastern,Central and Coast regions of the country showed a bimodal pattern with high frequencies coinciding with March-April-May(MAM)and October-November-December(OND)rainy sea-sons.Very few thunderstorm days were detected over June-July-August(JJA)season.The areas to the western part of the country,near Lake Victoria,had the highest thunderstorm frequencies in the country over the three seasons:MAM,JJAS and OND.The annual frequency showed a quasi-unimodal pattern.These places near Lake Victoria showed sig-nificantly increasing thunderstorm trends during the MAM and OND seasons irrespective of the rainfall trends.This shows the effects of Lake Victoria over these areas,and it acts as a continuous source of moisture for thunderstorm for-mation.However,most stations across the country showed a reducing trend of thunderstorm frequency during MAM and JJA seasons.The importance of these findings is that they could support various policy makers,and users of cli-mate information,especially in the agriculture and aviation industries.

Nurses’ and midwives’ participation and utilization of health-related research in Kenya: Implications for evidence-based practice

Objective To assess the level of participation of nurses and midwives in health-related research,determine the status of utilization of research to inform nursing and midwifery practice in Kenya,and explore perspectives of nurses and midwives about strategies to empower nurses/midwives to engage in health research in Kenya.Methods Data were extracted from online survey responses of 156 nurse and midwife educators,practitioners,and managers/administrators.SPSS version 26 was used to analyze quantitative data;qualitative data were analyzed using Excel to organize data into categories.Results Over one-third of participants reported ever publishing research(37.2%,58/156).Participants reported using knowledge gained in nursing school to guide practice most frequently(n=148).Utilization of research findings to guide practice was reported by 80.3%(110/137)of participants.Strategies to enhance participation in the research included research training,research forums,policy reforms,and emphasis on research in curricula.Conclusions There is need to intensify and prioritize proposed strategies to empower nurses/midwives to engage in health research.

System barriers to the provision of quality maternal health care in two regional teaching and referral hospitals in Kenya:a qualitative study

Objective:Sub-Saharan Africa accounts for 66%of global maternal deaths.In Kenya,362 maternal deaths occur in every 100000 live births.Most of these deaths occur as a result of suboptimal quality care of mothers during labor,delivery,or within 24h of delivery.This study explored barriers that nurse-midwives encounter in trying to provide high-quality obstetric care during these periods.Methods:A qualitative research design utilizing focus group discussion as part of a mixed method study was used to find out the participants'experiences.Data were collected between February and March 2022 in the maternity units of two regional teaching and referral hospitals in Kenya.Eligible participants were nurse-midwives in charge of the maternity unit.The discussion was conducted in English,tape-recorded,and transcribed verbatim,Data were analyzed thematically,following Braun and Clarke 6-step framework.Nvivo version 7.0 computer software was used to facilitate this process.Results:Two focused group discussions each involving seven participants were conducted.The participants agreed that maternal mortality due to postpartum hemorrhage and pregnancy-induced hypertension is a major health concern.Further,maternal care in the two hospitals was substandard.Themes that emerged as barriers were:inadequate supplies;inadequate obstetric knowledge and skills;shortage of nurse-midwives,and inadequate support supervision.The underlying factors include inadequate funding by the county government and high staff turnover.Conclusion:This study showed that nurse-midwives are working under very difficult circumstances which are hindering the provision of quality maternal care.This is mainly due to system failures and inadequate nursemidwife numbers.Targeted strategies need to be urgently implemented to mitigate these challenges to improve the quality of maternal health care.

Drought Impacts on Community Livelihoods in the Upper Ewaso Ng’iro Basin, Kenya

Drought is the most common of all natural disasters in Kenya, in terms of the large areas covered, populations adversely affected and socio-economic impacts. The Upper Ewaso Ng’iro Basin of Kenya is a drought-prone zone, lying on the lee slopes of both Mt. Kenya and Aberdares range. This study sought to determine opinions of communities on drought and its impacts on their livelihoods. Baseline data were collected from published reports and literature reviews augmented with information gathered through interviews with communities and key informants. Field data were collected mainly in the three counties of Laikipia, Isiolo and Meru, utilizing semi-structured questionnaire surveys. A total of 187 respondents were interviewed of which 150 were community members and 37 were policy makers. The typologies of community respondents interviewed included small-scale farmers, large commercial farmers, pastoralists, conservancies, water user associations and conservation groups. It was found that drought is a serious disaster in the Upper Ewaso Ng’iro basin, which has been escalating. Communities experienced negative impacts of drought, with the biggest problem being water scarcity, closely followed by food and fodder shortages and poor incomes from farming. Other problems include spikes in livestock theft, loss of livestock from diseases and shortage of pasture. Conflicts over water and pasture escalate during droughts and crime increases due to lack of on-farm employment opportunities. Since drought events are natural phenomena expected to happen any time, there is need to identify how to improve local capacities in drought preparedness, adaptation and resilience.

Diversity of Insect Flower Visitors on Macadamia within a Monoculture Orchard in Murang’a County, Central Kenya

Macadamia is cultivated for its nutritious edible kernel. In Kenya, the crop is predominantly grown by smallholder farmers mainly for export markets. Macadamia trees also enhance agro-forestry conservation, in the East African farmlands, by providing habitat and floral resources to beneficial arthropods such as insect pollinators. Allogamy of macadamia flowers is largely dependent on insects that pollinate and consequently influence the nut set, retention and yield. However, there is limited information on macadamia insect flower visitors in Kenya. This article assessed the diversity of insects that forage flowers of macadamia crop, and further evaluated their temporal distribution, in Murang’a county, central Kenya. Insect flower visitors were sampled weekly using a butterfly net for twelve consecutive months, from January 2021 to December 2021. Sixty-one insect species were recorded foraging macadamia flowers in Murang’a county, central Kenya. There was a statistical difference in the Simpson diversity index among weather seasons, dry, long rain, cold and short rain (p Apis mellifera), a key pollinator species, being the most abundant flower visitor. This study provides strong baseline information, to scientists and farmers, on probable macadamia pollinator species, in central Kenya. .

Challenges Associated with Menstrual Hygiene among Adolescent Girls Attending Bocharia Primary School in Nyamira County, Kenya

Background: Approximately, half a million of adolescent girls in the world feel frustrated during their monthly period due to poor menstrual hygiene practices. In the low-and-middle income countries, about three-quarters of girls do not have access to clean sanitary materials, and use low-quality products. In the Sub-Saharan African countries, menstruation among school-age girls is a neglected issue. Poor menstrual hygiene practices expose adolescent girls to reproductive organ infections, psychosocial stress, and poor school attendance. However, the available data concerning challenges associated with menstrual hygiene among school girls in the remote areas of Kenya remains unknown. Aim: To assess challenges associated with menstrual hygiene among adolescent girls attending Bocharia Primary School in Nyamira County, Kenya. Methods: The target population was grade 4 to 8 adolescent girls (n = 111) aged 10 - 19 years. Hence, census method of sampling was used to include all the girls in grade 4 - 8. Raw data was obtained using a Semi-structured questionnaire which was tested by a representation of 11 girls (10% of the sample size) who had the same characteristics. Data was analyzed using SPSS version 21 with both descriptive and inferential statistics. In descriptive statistics, frequency and percentage were generated. The chi-square test of independence was used to determine associations between some socio-demographic variables of the girls and menstrual hygiene practice. A p-value of less than 0.05 was considered to be significant. Results: The study found that majority (57%) of the respondents had poor menstrual hygiene practices associated with lack of accessibility and affordability to sanitary products, functional and safe latrines, shortage of soap and water supply, and sanitation facilities. Approximately half (47.8%) of the respondents reported that menstrual hygiene practices are highly influenced by taboo from cultural beliefs and societal norms. Girls who live with both parents were more likely (73.3%) to wash their body with water and soap during monthly bleeding as compared to those girls from single mother (64.7%) and those who live or grand Mothers (42.9%). The toilets or latrines that were allocated to the girls were unlockable, which threatens privacy and safety of the girls. Conclusions: Most of the school girls had poor menstrual hygiene practices associated with lack of sanitary products, safe and functional latrines, adequate water supply, soaps and sanitation facilities. Adequate attention to menstrual hygiene management should be given by the water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) program, education sectors, and sexual and reproductive health programs.

肯尼亚早三叠世叶肢介一新属—Kenyaestheria(英文)

报道的叶肢介新属(Kenyaestheriagen.nov.)采自肯尼亚MajiyaChumvi地区的一钻孔,属下三叠统上马几牙楚姆维组(UpperMajiyaChumviFormation),其特征为壳瓣后背缘最后几条生长线靠近背缘处形成一个凹缘构造,但生长线在背缘并不反转弯曲,同时具有放射线纹饰,据此将其归于凹缘叶肢介科(Ulugkemiidae)。该科是一个灭绝的类群,分布于中泥盆统至上三叠统,古生代的类型都发现于欧亚大陆,晚三叠世的Triasulugkemia见于阿根廷,新属首见于早三叠世,也是在南大陆出现的第二例凹缘叶肢介类。孢粉Lunatisporitespellucidus和叶肢介AquilonoglyptaCorniaPalaeolimnadiaFalsisca组合指示含化石的地层时代为早三叠世早期。

A First for Kenya

Kenya is set to become the first country in Africa to start exporting avocados to China, once a recent agreement signed between the two countries comes into effect. The deal is expected to lead to the export of 40 percent of the country's avocado produce to China, according to the Kenya Plant Health Inspectorate Service (KEPHIS), and also opens the door for the export of other horticultural crops such as flowers, French beans, baby corn, broccoli and sugar snaps.

Diversity and distribution patterns of non-volant smallmammals along different elevation gradients on Mt. Kenya,Kenya

The distribution of small mammals in mountainous environments across different elevations can provide important information on the effects of climate change on the dispersal of species. However, few studies conducted on Afromontane ecosystems have compared the altitudinal patterns of small mammal diversity. We investigated the species diversity and abundance of non-volant small mammals(hereafter ‘small mammals')on Mt. Kenya, the second tallest mountain in Africa,using a standard sampling scheme. Nine sampling transects were established at intervals of 200 m on the eastern(Chogoria) and western(Sirimon) slopes.A total of 1 905 individuals representing 25 species of small mammals were trapped after 12 240 trap-nights.Abundance was highest at mid-elevations on both slopes.However, species richness and their distribution patterns differed between the two slopes. More species were recorded on Chogoria(24) than on Sirimon(17). On Chogoria, species richness was higher at mid-high elevations, with a peak at mid-elevation(2 800 m a.s.l.),whereas species richness showed little variation on the Sirimon slope. These results indicate that patterns of species diversity can differ between slopes on the same mountain. In addition, we extensively reviewed literature on Mt. Kenya's mammals and compiled a comprehensive checklist of 76 mammalian species. However, additional research is required to improve our understanding of smal mammal diversity in mountain habitats in Africa.

Identification Key for <i>Aspergillus</i>Species Isolated from Maize and Soil of Nandi County, Kenya

The aim of this study was to identify Aspergillus species isolated from maize kernels and soils of maize fields of Nandi County using macro and micro morphological characteristics. A cross sectional research design was used in the study and purposive sampling was employed to determine districts of Nandi County and sub locations where sampling was done. This study was part of a larger project whose aim was to survey aflatoxin exposure in the maize value chain. Aspergillus species were isolated from maize and soil samples using quarter strength potato dextrose agar and modified Rose Bengal agar respectively. Pure cultures of the isolates were sub cultured and transferred onto differential media;malt extract agar, czapek yeast extract agar and czapek dox agar for species identification using macro morphological characteristics. Fungal slides were prepared from pure cultures on potato dextrose agar media after three days to identify micro morphological characteristics. Based on morphological characteristics, seven sections of Aspergillus namely: Flavi, Fumigati, Nigri, Circumdati, Clavati, Nidulantes and Candidi were identified. Aspergillus section Flavi was the most predominant with 57% followed by section Nigri with 27% from maize and 58% of section Flavi followed by 26% of section Nigri from the soil across the three locations. Aspergillus sections Nidulantes and Candidi were rare and only recovered from the soil samples of Kaptumo location. All the Aspergillius flavus that formed sclerotia both from the soils or maize kernels were of the L strains. In conclusion Aspergillus section Flavi was most frequent during the isolation process and dominated with Aspergillus flavus from both the maize and soil. Morphological characteristics remain the primary tool for detection and identification of Aspergillus species. The significance for high incidence of Aspergillus section Flavi is in regard to their aflatoxin production profiles that poses a health threat to the community and it is of public health concern. Morphological characteristics as a primary tool for Aspergillus identification should be embraced and more personnel with the knowledge are required since modern and faster techniques are scarce and expensive.

Nutritional and Technological Characteristics of New Cowpea (<i>Vigna unguiculata</i>) Lines and Varieties Grown in Eastern Kenya

Protein sources in the diet of people living in semi-arid land of Kenya are lacking and if available it is costly to them. In terms of safe food and a healthy food supply, cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata.) are a significant source of protein, carbohydrates, and minerals especially for poor populations in the Kenya, it is said to be poor man’s meat. The aim of this study was to determine nutritional composition of newly bred ten cowpea lines and five varieties commonly grown in Eastern Kenya of Kitui, Machakos and Makueni counties to understand their potential utilization in curbing rising food and nutrition insecurity in arid and semi-arid lands ASALs and in any other food applications in Kenya. The experiment was arranged in Completely Randomized Design (CRD) whereby proximate composition and minerals were determined using standard AOAC and AACC methods and technological characteristics checked using modified methods used by other researchers. Collected data were subjected to Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) using SAS (2006) version 9.1, mean separation was done using Tukey’s Honestly Significant Difference (HSD) method at 5% level of significance. Cowpeas composition ranged from 12.28% - 13.35% for moisture content, 49.37% - 55.74% for total carbohydrates, 2.99% - 3.34% for crude ash, 0.13% - 0.81% for crude lipids, 23.37% - 29.70% for crude protein and 1.40% - 4.34% for crude fibers. Cowpea samples recorded highest percentage of essential amino acids (60.71%) and non-essential amino acids (39.29%). Minerals ranged from 1.97 - 2.69 mg/100g for calcium, 3.23 - 3.90 mg/100g for magnesium, 205.53 - 223.30 mg/100g for sodium, 0.80 - 1.23 mg/100g for zinc, 1071.15 - 1152.62 mg/100g for potassium and 0.62 - 1.06 mg/100g for phosphorus. For technological properties, lines absorbed water equivalent to their weights and they were comparable to varieties grown in the region. From the results it showed that cowpea line IT97K-1042-3, TEXAN PINKIYE, TX123, IT85F-867-5, IT82D-889-1 and IT82D-889 have desirable attributes such as high crude protein contents, good water absorption capacities and volumetric expansion. They compared well with existing K80 variety. These cowpea lines could possibly be bred and combined into a single cowpea line and further improved by breeders to have other good properties such as higher levels of water absorption during soaking hence reduced cooking times. Therefore, this work has shown that cowpea lines developed can be used as food security crop, industrial food applications and enriching foods of low protein like in complementary foods for healthy food supply in Eastern Kenya.

Small mammal diversity of Mt. Kenya based oncarnivore fecal and surface bone remains

Ecological dynamics and faunal diversity documentation is normally conducted by direct observation and trapping of live animals. However,surveys of carnivore scat prey and surface bone remains, which are relatively inexpensive, can provide complementary data that expand carnivore diet breadth and may improve accuracy regarding inferences of the ecological dynamics of a given ecosystem. We used this inexpensive method to document species diversity variation with elevation on the leeward(Sirimon) and windward(Chogoria)areas of Mt. Kenya. Bone and fecal specimens were opportunistically collected by walking 2 km in opposite directions from transect points selected at 200-m intervals along the elevational gradient of the study areas. We collected a total of 220 carnivore fecal and owl pellet specimens from both study sites, which were mainly deposited by the spotted hyena(Crocuta crocuta), leopard(Panthera pardus),serval(Leptailurus serval), genet(Genetta sp.), and Mackinder's Cape owl(Bubo capensis mackinderi).Serval scats were the most common, followed by those of the spotted hyena. Scats and bones were found at the lowest density at the lowest elevations,peaked at mid-higher elevations, and then declined at the highest elevations. Based on skeletal analysis only, there were more species in Sirimon(19) than in Chogoria(12). Small fauna(rodents to duiker size bovids) formed the bulk of the identified remains,representing 87.9% of the Sirimon fauna and 90.9% of the Chogoria fauna. The genus Otomys was the dominant prey of the owl and serval in both sites. Three giraffe teeth were found at 3 500 m a.s.l. in Chogoria on the edge of Lake El is, suggesting that it is an occasional visitor to such high elevations. This study underscores the value of fecal and bone surveys in understanding the diet and diversity of mammals in ecological ecosystems,but such surveys should be complemented with analysis of hairs found in scats to obtain a more complete list of carnivore prey at Mt. Kenya.

Analysis of Differences in Biochemical Components Between Yunnan and Kenya Tea Tree Varieties

With 16 Yunnan tea tree varieties and 5 Kenya tea tree varieties as test materials,the differences in biochemical components between Yunnan and Kenya tea tree varieties were compared and analyzed.The results showed that the coefficients of variation of tea polyphenols,amino acids,caffeine,water extract,gallic acid(GA),catechin(C),epicatechin(EC),epicatechin gallate(ECG),epigallocatechin(EGC),epigallocatechin gallate(EGCG)and total catechins in Yunnan tea tree varieties were greater than those in Kenyan tea trees.The contents of tea polyphenols,amino acids,caffeine,water extract,C,EC,EGC,EGCG and total catechins in Yunnan tea tree varieties had no significant differences from those in Kenyan tea trees varieties(P>0.05),while there were significant differences in the contents of GA and ECG between Yunnan tea tree varieties and Kenya tea tree varieties(P<0.05).Therefore,it could be predicted that GA and ECG might be one of the main characteristics of the differences in biochemical components between Yunnan tea tree varieties and Kenyan tea tree varieties.The cluster analysis results showed that when the genetic distance was 15,the 21 tested tea varieties could be divided into three groups with obvious biochemical differences.

Overweight and obesity among public and private primary school children in Nairobi, Kenya

Obesity is on the rise in developing countries, especially in urban areas. In this study, a cross-sectional study was conducted in two divisions in Nairobi province to determine the prevalence of and some risk factors associated with overweight and obesity among school children in Nairobi, Kenya. It involved 344 school children aged 9-14 years drawn from four randomly selected public and private primary schools. Weight and height were measured and body mass index was calculated. Nutrition status was determined using the World Health Organization age and gender specific BMI-for-age Z-scores (BAZ). The chi-square test was used to determine the relationship between overweight/obesity and selected socio-demographic characteristics. Complete anthropometric measurements were available for 321 children. Prevalence of combined overweight and obesity (BAZ > +1SD) was 19.0%, with prevalence being higher among girls (21.0%) than boys (16.9%) (p = 0.632). The prevalence among children in private schools was significantly higher (29.0%) than among those in public schools (11.5%) (p = 0.000). In addition, being a single child (p = 0.020), birth order (p = 0.017), mother’s occupation (p = 0.023) and type of residence (p = 0.028) were positively associated with overweight/obesity. The prevalence of overweight/obesity determined in this study is high and is a public health concern, with girls particularly at risk of becoming overweight.

Influence of Livestock Farming on Vegetation in a Degraded Soil Area on the East Coast of Lake Victoria in Western Kenya: A Case Study of Jimo East Sub-Location in Nyando Sub-County

In the study area located in Western Kenya near the Lake Victoria, severe soil erosion occurred and it thought to relate to vegetation degradation caused by overgrazing. The livestock density estimated by analyzing satellite image (1.39 TLU/ha for available grazing lands) was lower than that of measured for seven farmers’ grazing lands using GPSs (4.41 TLU/ha, 2011) with variation from 0.83 to 12.36 TLU/ha. Thus, it is clear that the grasslands used by farmers are limited compared with the area of estimated available land for grazing identified by analyzing the satellite image. According to growth-consumption rate model that was developed by the Nyangito et al. (2008) in southeastern Kenya, if livestock density reaches over 7 TLU/ha, pasture growth rate became lower than consumption rate. Grass biomasses of the grazing lands were kept low (less than 50 g/50 × 50 cm2) under high livestock density (three farmers out of seven were higher than 7 TLU/ha). In addition, rainfall pattern is very unstable and we observed stunted growth of grasses during dry spells. Therefore, we concluded that overgrazing. It means that inhibition of continuous re-growth of grasses due to high grazing pressure has been occurred even for small area and contributed to the soil erosion.

Noise Pollution Mapping Using GIS in Nairobi, Kenya

Noise is any sound that causes physiological uneasiness to the ear. People in many environments today, especially urban ones, are exposed to such noise without realizing its potential danger to their healthy hearing. This situation is largely contributed to by the little attention that most governments, especially in the developing countries, pay to noise as a pollution issue. This paper describes a study that aimed at measuring the noise levels at selected points in Nairobi’s CBD with a view to generate a noise map over the study area in addition to identifying areas of high noise intensity or noise hot spots. The study found that noise levels, on average, varied from 61 db to 78 db, increasing from the west to the east of the CBD, and emanated mainly from vehicular traffic;several noise hotspots were also identified, and they are located mainly to the east of the CBD. The paper concludes that although the study was not city-wide, the noise levels observed are high enough to warrant further research and action by the environmental authorities.

Rainfall Variability and Its Impact on Normalized Difference Vegetation Index in Arid and Semi-Arid Lands of Kenya

Agriculture in arid and semi-arid lands of Kenya is depends on seasonal characteristics of rainfall. This study seeks to distinguish components of regional climate variability, especially El Ni?o Southern Oscillation events and their impact on the growing season normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI). Datasets used were: 1) rainfall (1961-2003) and 2) NDVI (1981-2003). Results indicate that climate variability is persistent in the arid and semi-arid lands of Kenya and continues to affect vegetation condition and consequently crop production. Correlation calculations between seasonal NDVI and rainfall shows that the October-December (OND) growing season is more reliable than March-May (MAM) season. Results show that observed biomass trends are not solely explained by rainfall variability but also changes in land cover and land use. Results show that El Ni?o and La Ni?a events in southeast Kenya vary in magnitude, both in time and space as is their impact on vegetation;and that variation in El Ni?o intensity is higher than during La Ni?a events. It is suggested that farmers should be encouraged to increase use of farm input in their agricultural enterprises during the OND season;particularly when above normal rains are forecast. The close relationship between rainfall and NDVI yield ground for improvement in the prediction of local level rainfall. Effective dissemination of this information to stakeholders will go along way to ameliorate the suffering of many households and enable government to plan ahead of a worse season. This would greatly reduce the vulnerability of livelihoods to climate related disasters by improving their management.