Application of Community Climate Change Adaptation Assessment Tools for Climate Adaptation Planning in Yala Wetlands Complex, Lake Victoria Basin, Kenya

Yala Wetland is a complex of Nzoia and Yala rivers that drain their waters into Lake Victoria, but face various pressure which is thought to originate from the impacts of climate change. The riparian communities are generally poor and use the wetland resources for small-holder livelihood activities. This paper describes how community climate change adaptation assessment (C3A2) tools were applied to identify resilient community-level adaptation options and would inform local climate adaptation planning. Eight participatory C3A2 tools were applied for data collection in which two (adaptation attributes and story-telling) were administered at the meso or local government (County) level while all the eight tools (community protocol, risk mapping, techno-transect, resilience ranking, community calendars, story-telling, adaptation attributes and give back) were administered at the micro or community level. Qualitative research method was adopted and 80 respondents (20 at meso and 60 at micro) were purposively selected for the study. Data were collected through interviews, focus group discussions (FGD), and plenary discussions. Data were analyzed at four levels: pre-analysis in situ, daily team triangulation, team conclusions, and cross-community reporting. The study found that communities experienced climate risks that tended to shift along with prolonged and irregular hydro-meteorological events, which affected their capacities for adaptation especially the resource-constrained individuals and vulnerable households. Drought (45%) and flood hazards (39%) were the most felt strongly. Drought was manifested mainly by prolonged dry-spell, increased atmospheric temperatures, and strong winds while floods were characterized by unpredictable and short but high-intensity rainfall with associated loss of lives and property damage. Women, children, and poor households were the most exposed to climatic hazards. Farm/agro-forestry was the most perceived adaptation strategy for drought, flood, and soil erosion while alternative livelihoods particularly ecotourism was the commonly perceived adaptation strategy for human-wildlife conflict (HWC). Three community-based adaptation action plans (CBAP) were prepared to guide future village-level planning and development. The CBAPs were used to identify three sample projects which were funded by the donor and implemented by the community. The C3A2 approach provides adequate participatory tools that can be applied in the lake and river basins, and potentially other ecosystems to guide the development of community-based adaptation plans and resilient community-based adaptation projects with wider local acceptance especially those geared towards designing programs for climate-smart livelihoods. However, the application of the methodology may be site-specific and the tools can be administered based on local scenarios and the availability of resources.

No evidence for a genetic association between female mating preference and male secondary sexual trait in a Lake Victoria cichlid fish

Sexual selection by female mating preference for male nuptial coloration has been suggested as a driving force in therapid speciation of Lake Victoria cichlid fish. This process could have been facilitated or accelerated by genetic associations betweenfemale preference loci and male coloration loci. Preferences, as well as coloration, are heritable traits and are probably determinedby more than one gene. However, little is known about potential genetic associations between these traits. In turbid water,we found a population that is variable in male nuptial coloration from blue to yellow to red. Males at the extreme ends of thephenotype distribution resemble a reproductively isolated species pair in clear water that has diverged into one species withblue-grey males and one species with bright red males. Females of the turbid water population vary in mating preference coincidingwith the male phenotype distribution. For the current study, these females were mated to blue males. We measured the colorationof the sires and male offspring. Parents-offspring regression showed that the sires did not affect male offspring coloration,which confirms earlier findings that the blue species breeds true. In contrast, male offspring coloration was determined by theidentity of the dams, which suggests that there is heritable variation in male color genes between females. However, we found thatmating preferences of the dams were not correlated with male offspring coloration. Thus, there is no evidence for strong geneticlinkage between mating preference and the preferred trait in this

Wireless Sensor Networks for Water Quality Monitoring and Control within Lake Victoria Basin: Prototype Development

The need for effective and efficient monitoring, evaluation and control of water quality in Lake Victoria Basin (LVB) has become more demanding in this era of urbanization, population growth and climate change and variability. Traditional methods that rely on collecting water samples, testing and analyses in water laboratories are not only costly but also lack capability for real-time data capture, analyses and fast dissemination of information to relevant stakeholders for making timely and informed decisions. In this paper, a Water Sensor Network (WSN) system prototype developed for water quality monitoring in LVB is presented. The development was preceded by evaluation of prevailing environment including availability of cellular network coverage at the site of operation. The system consists of an Arduino microcontroller, water quality sensors, and a wireless network connection module. It detects water temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH, and electrical conductivity in real-time and disseminates the information in graphical and tabular formats to relevant stakeholders through a web-based portal and mobile phone platforms. The experimental results show that the system has great prospect and can be used to operate in real world environment for optimum control and protection of water resources by providing key actors with relevant and timely information to facilitate quick action taking.

Implications of Papyrus (<i>Cyperus papyrus</i>L.) Biomass Harvesting on Nutrient Regulation in Nyando Floodplain Wetland, Lake Victoria, Kenya

Harvesting of papyrus biomass plays a significant role in regulating ecosystem services of which one of them is nutrient uptake and cycling. Despite Lake Victoria’s wetlands being important, little is understood about its role in nutrient uptake and removal. Although there have been studies done in these wetlands, there is inadequate understanding on the implication of unselective biomass harvesting on the water quality of Lake Vitoria. At the same time, these wetlands are threatened by livelihood-related pressures which are driven by extreme hydrological regimes. This study focused on Nyando floodplain wetland located in the Eastern part of the shores of Lake Victoria which is a lifeline to many rural communities living around the lake. Papyrus biomass harvesting was assessed in two study sites of Nyando wetland and at different seasons in order to determine its implication on nutrient regulating services. Participatory tools, field survey, observation, field measurements and laboratory analysis were used. Harvesting of papyrus removed 530.6 Kg N/g DM/ha/day and 97 Kg P/g DM/ha/day in Ogenya while 771.2 Kg N/g DM/ha/day and 109.2 Kg P/g DM/ha/day were removed in Wasare. However, addition of nutrients to the wetland may lead to the problem of eutrophication especially at the site where interaction of wetland and lake water occurs. Understanding the role of papyrus harvesting patterns is crucial for better planning and management of this complex resource in a changing environment.

Influence of Land Use Activities on Spatial and Temporal Variation of Nutrient Deposition in Mwanza Region: Implication to the Atmospheric Loading to the Lake Victoria

Increase in population growth and the associated activities have increased the nutrient input to the Lake Victoria through atmosphere and river discharge. Atmospheric input of nutrient is believed to exceed that of river discharge due to relatively higher contribution of water mass to the Lake from atmosphere. However, precipitation characteristics with respect to nutrients have not been well studied to allow qualification and quantification of atmospheric contribution to the Lake Victoria. This study was conducted to investigate influence of land use activities on spatial and temporal variation of nutrient inputs from atmosphere and to estimate atmospheric loading to the Lake Victoria. The results revealed that there is significant spatial and temporal variation of nutrient deposition in the study area. High concentrations of nutrients were observed during short rains starting from September to December. This was attributed to dissolution of nutrients from soil particals and ash residues due to biomass burning accumulated in the atmosphere during dry season of June to August. Spatial variation of nutrients reflects land use activities. Urban and peri-urban areas showed very high concentration of nitrate nitrogen due to industrial and vehicle emission while rural area showed high concentration of phosphorous species and reduced forms of nitrogen species reflecting agricultural activities and animal keeping. Generally, nutrient deposition load was higher in rural area compared to urban with respective values of 15.5 and 13.9 kg·haˉ1·yˉ1 for total nitrogen and 6.1 and 2.8 kg·haˉ1·yˉ1 for total phosphorous. These results suggest that in order to realize significant reduction of nutrient input to the Lake Victoria, measures should be taken to control agricultural activities through proper land use planning. The measure may be directed to reduce biomass burning, emission from industries and vehicle as well as animal residue.

Reduction in the Water Level of Lake Victoria and Its Implications on Livelihoods in Rwanjaba Lakeshore Community,Uganda

This paper examines the livelihood challenges experienced in Rwanjaba Lakeshore Community during the period of low water level in Lake Victoria between 2004 and 2007 and identifies the livelihood coping strategies that were adopted to address them.A total of 55 households were randomly sampled and the data collection methods included household questionnaires and participant observations.The data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Science(SPSS) and the results presented with the help of descriptive statistics.The livelihood challenges experienced during the low lake water level included fish shortage(34.5%),household food scarcity(23.6%),sex for fish(18.2%),family breakdown(12.7%),increased theft(7.2%) and accidents due to the exposed rocks in the lake(3.6%).The livelihood coping strategies adopted to redress the challenges included causal labour(32.7%),maize roasting(23.6%),sand mining(18.2%),selling of snacks(12.7%),selling household property(9.1%) and resorting shop and market credits(3.6%).The paper proposes a number of recommendations for improving the livelihood of the community ranging from policy reforms to the diversification of activities.

Ecological Devastation in Lake Victoria: Part B: Plankton and Fish Communities

A few specimens of the exotic fish, Nile Perch, (Lates niloticus, Linnaeus 1758) were transferred into Lake Victoria in early 1950’s. In early 1980’s this fish occupied the Lake Victoria ecosystem eliminating the local endemic Haplochromines (app. 400 species). As a result of this change, together with intensification of pollution constrains from the catchment and dust deposition the ecology of Victoria’s ecosystem was modified: cyanobacteria replaced diatoms, anoxia enhanced, secchi depth became shallower, euphotic zone became thinner, fishery enhanced fully comprised of Nile Perch and Rastrineobola. The ecological significances are discussed and future propositions are presented.

Ecological Devastation in Lake Victoria: Part A: Thermal Structure and Anoxia

Lake Victoria is the second (excl. Caspian Sea) largest lake in the world by surface area and 7th by Volume. The lake and catchment territories are shared between three countries, Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania. A research was carried out during 1990-1992 exploring the changes of the thermo-chemical structure occurred after the invasion of Nile Perch. Results of changes of physico-chemical (Temperature, DO and pH) conditions are summarized in this paper. The anoxic conditions by space and time were enhanced. Enhancement of pollutant supply from anthropogenic developments of terrestrial sources and atmospheric dust deposition accompanied by the deleterious effects of the Nile Perch invasion caused enhancement of anoxia in the lake in space and time. The combination of bottom-up nutrient supply and strong mixing conditions, expressed as low RTR values accelerate phytoplankton growth rate and production. The surplus of organic matter originated from algal biomass, enhanced anoxia.

The Community of Parasites Infecting <i>Clarias gariepinus</i>in the Tanzanian Waters: A Case of Lake Victoria

Quantitative variations in parasites were investigated with respect to sex and size of Clarias gariepinus, season and localities sampled. Parasitic infection in male and female fish was not significantly different;prevalence (Man-Whitney paired sample test, U = 135.5, p = 0.7697), mean intensity (U = 136, p = 0.7829). Based on Kruskal-Wallis test analysis, the prevalence and mean intensity of five parasite species varied significantly among the three localities sampled. Adult parasites in Clarias gariepinus showed high abundance during the dry season while the larval forms showed high abundance in the wet season. In most of the parasite species analyzed the abundance varied significantly with host size. The abundance of Dolops ranarum, Paracamallanus cyatopharynx and Eumasenia bangweulensis for instance, increased with fish size, while that of Diplostomum mashonense, Tylodelphys species, Astiotrema reniferum, piscicolid leeches and Monobothrioides woodlandi increased initially but decreased as fish length reached 31 - 40 cm. Total parasite burden increased in fish of 20 - 40 cm standard length. Generally, most parasites were highly overdispersed and the negative binomial model described their distribution.

Morphometric Relationships among the Clariid Fishes of the Lake Victoria Basin, Tanzania

Six hundred and fifty-eight specimens of the Clariidae were collected from seven localities in the Lake Victoria basin and the Malagarasi wetland, Tanzania. A total of three hundred unadjusted morphometric measurements and meristic counts were analysed with the aim of assessing the adequacy of morphometric technique to delineate the clariid species occurring in theLake Victoriabasin. Results showed that morphometrics augmented by multivariate analysis (PCA, DCA and cluster analysis) amalgamated the clariid fishes into three groups, the?Clarias alluaudi/C. werneri,?C. gariepinus/C. liocephalus?andClariallabes petricola. Although other workers have used this technique, the present study concluded that, standing alone morphometrics is not a substitute for external morphology in the identification of clariid fish species, as it failed to separate the clariids into their respective taxonomic species. The technique, however, insinuates the regressional morphological relationships among the clariids occurring in the Lake Victoria basin.

Metazoan Parasites of Clariid Fishes, Lake Victoria: Reflection of the Original Fauna in the Lake?

A total of 32 parasite species were documented from 658 clariid fishes examined. Thirteen species were nematodes, eleven digeneans, three cestodes, two crustaceans, and the Monogenea, Acanthocephala and Hirudinea were each represented by one species. Of the parasites recovered 16 were identified to species level, 12 to genus and 4 parasites were not identified. Most of the parasites recorded in the present study have been reported in fish ofTanzaniaand elsewhere, however, there were a few first records, and these included Neogoezia sp., Comephoronema sp., Travnema sp., Quimperia sp. and Gendria tilapiae. It is stipulated that these parasites represent the original fauna of the lake prior to introduction of the alien species. The clariid fish species investigated were a good model for studying the parasites of fish in the lake because of having a variety of parasites some of which being specific to certain clariid fishes, for instance Diplostomum and Tylodelphys species infecting only C. gariepinus and the camallanids being typical of the clariid fishes.

Implications of Land Use Land Cover Change and Climate Variability on Future Prospects of Beef Cattle Production in the Lake Victoria Basin

This paper presents the lessons learnt from a research project titled “Improving Beef Cattle Productivity for Enhanced Food Security and Efficient Utilization of Natural Resources in the Lake Victoria Basin” which includes Tanzania, Uganda and Rwanda. The key focus is on the implications of land use land cover change and climate variability on the future prospects of beef cattle production in this region. The study utilizes information and data from natural resources and climate components to deduce the impact of land use and land cover changes on climate variability. Additional analysis is conducted to summarize the land use and land cover data to carry out analysis on climate data using the Mann-Kendal test, linear regression and moving averages to reveal patterns of change and trends in annual and seasonal rainfall and temperature. The findings reveal that the study areas of Rwanda, Uganda and Tanzania in the Lake Victoria Basin (LVB) have changed over time following land cover manipulations and land use change, coupled with climate variability. The grazing land has been converted to agriculture and settlements, thereby reducing cattle grazing land which is the cheapest and major feed source for ruminant livestock production. Although the cattle population has been on the increase in the same period, it has been largely attributed to the fact that the carrying capacity of available grazing areas had not been attained. The current stocking rates in the LVB reveal that the rangelands are greatly overstocked and overgrazed with land degradation already evidenced in some areas. Climate variability coupled with a decrease in grazing resources is driving unprecedented forage scarcity which is now a major limiting factor to cattle production. Crop cultivation and settlement expansion are major land use types overtaking grazing lands;therefore the incorporation of crop residues into ruminant feeding systems could be a feasible way to curtail rangeland degradation and increase beef cattle production.

Decentralised Governance of Wetland Resources in the Lake Victoria Basin of Uganda

Recent studies on decentralized wetland governance in Uganda have focused mainly on the relationship between central and local governments. Less attention has been given to the relationship between agricultural systems, local governments, and water bodies. This study aims at assessing decentralized wetlands governance in the upper river Rwizi and Iguluibi micro catchments, Lake Victoria Basin Uganda, in relation to farming practices. Qualitative and quantitative methods were used to provide a comprehensive understanding of the contribution of decentralized governance to the management of wetlands resources. Quantitative survey data were analyzed using descriptive summary statistics with the help of Statistical package for Social Sciences (SPSS) soft ware. Qualitative data analysis involved the categorization of verbal and behavioral data for purposes of classification with the use of Nvivo soft ware. Data were analyzed at two levels: the descriptive level of analysis which is the account of the data in terms of what was said, documented or observed with nothing assumed about it. The second level of analysis was interpretive, where data is transformed into what is meant by the responses and conclusions are drawn. All recorded interviews were transcribed into a written report. Findings revealed that decentralized wetlands governance has brought ecosystem services nearer to communities in form of community-based management planning. However, results indicated inadequate institutional capacity, knowledge gaps of existing legal frameworks, limited political support and accountability for local leaders, lack of cooperation and coordination, and inadequate funding. In all, the policy has not fully realized its intended outcomes.

The Spatial and Temporal Characteristics of Rainfall over the Lake Victoria Basin of Kenya in 1987-2016

Climate extremes have increased in the recent past and they are further being exacerbated by climate change and variability. In this paper, we sought to determine rainfall characteristics over the Lake Victoria Basin of Kenya in 1987-2016, as a basis of understanding climate variability. The methodology used included;Standardized Precipitation Index to depict variability, coefficient of variation for spatial analysis and the Mann-Kendall test to test the presence of trends in data. We established that Lake Victoria basin is relatively wet through-out the year, with two distinct rainfall seasons March-April-May (MAM) and October-November-December (OND) that support human livelihood and ecology. The normal wetness conditions have declined over time, paving way for both dry and wet extremes conditions between 1997-1998 and 2002-2006, respectively. The rainfall extremes have become frequent in the last decade in 2007-2016. We also established a decline in the MAM rainfall seasons, and an increase during the October-December rainfall seasons in 1987-2016. Furthermore, the number of rainy days has declined with the onset and cessations of both long rains and short rains having shown a variability of at least 50% and 30% respectively, in a range of about 100 to 200 Julian days. The decline in wet condition is likely to affect economic activities especially the rainfed agriculture. The changing rainfall trends over the basin therefore, call for proper human livelihood planning and ecological monitoring in order to achieve ecological sustainability.

Seasonal Variability of Rainfall and Thunderstorm Patterns in Kenya

This paper presents an analysis of spatial and temporal variation of rainfall and thunderstorm occurrence over Ken-ya from January 1987 to December 2017.The meteorological data used were obtained from the Kenya Meteorological Department(KMD)for the same period.This included the monthly thunderstorm occurrences and rainfall amounts of 26 synoptic stations across the country.The characteristics of monthly,seasonal and annual frequency results were presented on spatial maps while Time series graphs were used to display the pattern for annual cycle,seasonal varia-tions and the inter-annual variability of rainfall amounts and thunderstorm occurrences.A well-known non-parametric statistical method Mann Kendall(MK)trend test was used to determine and compare the statistical significance of the trends.Thunderstorm frequencies over the Eastern,Central and Coast regions of the country showed a bimodal pattern with high frequencies coinciding with March-April-May(MAM)and October-November-December(OND)rainy sea-sons.Very few thunderstorm days were detected over June-July-August(JJA)season.The areas to the western part of the country,near Lake Victoria,had the highest thunderstorm frequencies in the country over the three seasons:MAM,JJAS and OND.The annual frequency showed a quasi-unimodal pattern.These places near Lake Victoria showed sig-nificantly increasing thunderstorm trends during the MAM and OND seasons irrespective of the rainfall trends.This shows the effects of Lake Victoria over these areas,and it acts as a continuous source of moisture for thunderstorm for-mation.However,most stations across the country showed a reducing trend of thunderstorm frequency during MAM and JJA seasons.The importance of these findings is that they could support various policy makers,and users of cli-mate information,especially in the agriculture and aviation industries.

坦桑尼亚维多利亚湖金矿田典型金矿床成矿特征与矿床成因

坦桑尼亚维多利亚湖金矿田经历了复杂的构造变形、岩浆活动和成矿作用演化,形成了丰富的金矿产资源。通过对其中的典型金矿床地质特征、成矿流体来源和成矿时代等方面研究,探讨了矿床成因和金的沉淀机制。金矿床主要赋存在绿岩带地层单元中,含矿构造主要为与绿岩带走向大致相同的韧-脆性剪切带。金矿石中H_(2)O-CO_(2)型流体包裹体均一温度范围主要集中于300~400℃,盐度范围集中于14%~22%,成矿流体属中—高温、高盐度流体;成矿流体来源主要为岩浆水,在成矿过程中部分变质热液也参与其中。金矿床成矿时代为2710~2620 Ma,即为新太古代;矿床类型为受剪切带控制的中—高温热液金矿床。上述研究进展对非洲绿岩带内的金矿找矿勘查工作具有指导意义。

坦桑尼亚环维多利亚湖区岩(矿)石磁化率特征及应用

坦桑尼亚环维多利亚湖太古宙花岗-绿岩带是世界级的金矿带[1],太古界尼安萨(Nyanzian)群绿岩带为主要的赋矿层。金矿床多以富铁硫化物矿体产于条带状含铁建造(BIF)、以及剪切带控制的构造蚀变带中。区内条带状含铁建造、构造蚀变带的磁性参数系统测定与研究,对在该地区寻找绿岩带型金矿具有间接或直接的重要作用[2]。本文以坦桑尼亚环维多利亚湖区金矿地质勘查为例,分别从岩石单元、构造单元和侵入岩三个方面入手,对岩(矿)石磁化率统计特征和空间分布特征进行了分析研究。根据磁化率特征在绿岩带上圈定与金矿有关的条带状含铁建造、构造,取得理想的效果。