Spatiotemporal patterns and drivers of cultivated land conversion in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region,northern China

Protection and optimization of cultivated land resources are of great significance to national food security.Cultivated land conversion in northern China has increased in recent years due to the industrialization and urbanization of society.However,the assessment of cultivated land conversion in this area is insufficient,posing a potential risk to cultivated land resources.This study evaluated the evolution and spatiotemporal patterns of cultivated land conversion in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region,China,and the driving factors to improve rational utilization and to protect cultivated land resources.The spatiotemporal patterns of cultivated land conversion in Inner Mongolia were analyzed using the cultivated land conversion index,kernel density analysis,a standard deviation ellipse model,and a geographic detector.Results showed that from 2000 to 2020,the trends in cultivated land conversion area and rate in Inner Mongolia exhibited fluctuating growth,with the total area of cultivated land conversion reaching 7307.59 km^(2) at a rate of 6.69%.Spatial distribution of cultivated land conversion was primarily concentrated in the Hetao Plain,Nengjiang Plain,Liaohe Plain,and the Hohhot-Baotou-Ordos urban agglomeration.Moreover,the standard deviational ellipse of cultivated land conversion in Inner Mongolia exhibited a directional southwest-northeast-southwest-northeast distribution,with the northeast-southwest direction identified as the main driving force of spatial change in cultivated land conversion.Meanwhile,cultivated land conversion exhibited an increase-decrease-increase change process,indicating that spatial distribution of cultivated land conversion in Inner Mongolia became gradually apparent within the study period.The geographic detector results further revealed that the main driving factors of cultivated land conversion in Inner Mongolia were the share of secondary and tertiary industries and per-unit area yield of grain,with explanatory rates of 57.00%,55.00%,and 51.00%,respectively.Additionally,improved agricultural production efficiency and the coordinated development of population urbanization and industry resulted in cultivated land conversion.Collectively,the findings of this study indicated that,from 2000 to 2020,the cultivated land conversion in Inner Mongolia was significant and fluctuated in time,and had strong spatial heterogeneity.The primary drivers of these events included the effects of agriculture,population,and social economy.

Estimation of Land Production and Its Response to Cultivated Land Conversion in North China Plain

Food safety and its related influencing factors in China are the hot research topics currently,and cultivated land conversion is one of the significant factors influencing food safety in China.Taking the North China Plain as the study area,this paper examines the changes of cultivated land area using satellite images,estimates land productivity from 1985 to 2005 using the model of Estimation System for Land Productivity(ESLP),and analyzes the impact of cultivated land conversion on the land production.Compared with the grain yield data from statistical yearbooks,the results indicate that ESLP model is an effective tool for estimating land productivity.Land productivity in the North China Plain showed a slight decreasing trend from 1985 to 2005,spatially,increased from the north to the south gradu-ally,and the net changes varied in different areas.Cultivated land area recorded a marginal decrease of 8.0 × 105 ha,mainly converted to other land uses.Cultivated land conversion had more significant negative impacts on land produc-tion than land productivity did.Land production decreased by about 6.48 × 106 t caused by cultivated land conversion between 1985 and 2005,accounting for 91.9% of the total land production reduction.Although the land productivity increased in Anhui and Jiangsu provinces,it can not offset the overall adverse effects caused by cultivated land con-version.Therefore,there are significant meanings to control the cultivated land conversion and improve the land pro-ductivity for ensuring the land production in the North China Plain.

Welfare effects of rural-urban land conversion on different aged land-lost farmers:exemplified in Wuhan city

Rural-urban land conversion is a universal phenomenon in the rapid process of economic development and urban growth.The welfare of farmers who lost their farmland attracted a widespread concern within the society and academia.However,further research about differentiated policies according to the characteristics of different farmer groups is still need to be conducted.This article divides the land-lost farmers into three age groups:younger than 45,45-65,and more than 65.It proposes a welfare index system including eight functional areas based on different age groups of affected farmers,taking four districts of Wuhan City as case study area.Fuzzy mathematics method is used to derive the aggregated welfare effect index.Our analysis show that the overall welfare levels of land-lost farmers of all age groups declined,but with a varying degree,with the level of welfare in those farmers who are 45-65 years old,younger than 45 years old,and older than 65 years old decreased by 18.7%,16.6%,and 12.7%,respectively.The direction and degree of effects on the functional activity index varies among different groups.Economic conditions,living environment,health,and social participation of all age groups decrease while social security and housing conditions increase.On the other hand,development opportunities,social communication,and leisure have different changing directions in different age stages.These results call for differentiated and tailor-made compensation policies for land-lost farmers,towards improving the welfare levels of all farmers and reduce the disparity among them.

Influences of Different Transport Routes and Road Nodes on Industrial Land Conversion: A Case Study of Changchun City of Jilin Province, China

Nowadays, urban transit system has become one of the major forces underlying urban pace transformation via changing accessibility of related land parcels, which leads to the changes of land value and land use structure. This paper studied the interaction between land use changes and related transport routes, particular about how different transport routes and road nodes influence the conversion of industrial lands to residential and commercial uses respectively. Taking Changchun, an old industrial city in the rust belt of China as a case of study, we explored and compared the influences of different transport routes and road nodes on industrial land conversion. We found that surrounding the studied transport routes, more industrial lands were replaced by residential lands than by commercial lands. Also, apparent differences exist in the corridor effects of different transport routes(i.e., light rail, expressway and trunk road) and road nodes(i.e., expressway nodes and trunk road nodes) while the industrial lands convert to residential and commercial uses. Our research findings help us to illuminate the interactive relationships between transportation and industrial land conversion in old industrial cities which are undergoing social, economic and the related urban transition in Northeast China.

ANALYSIS AND MODELING ON CULTIVATED LAND CONVERSION——Case Study of Hebei Province

： With the acceleration of thc urbanization and industrialization of China, it is inevitable that cultivated land convcrts to built-up land for industrial, commercial and residential uses, which would impose pressure both on food security and on the sustainability of urbanization itself tbr such a country with large population and few cultivated land. Based on thc three-time Landsat Thematic Mapper （TM） digital imagcs and statistic data of Hebei Province, the general facts of cultivated land conversion and its driving forces were analyzcd by establishing econometric model in this papcr. Some conclusions werc drawn as the following： during 1985 2000, the rate of cultivated land converting to built-up arca in Hebei was 4.01% or 0.27% pcr year. Of all the converted cultivated land, 20.96% was converted to built-up area and of all the new built-up areas, 83.4% was converted from cultivated land; meanwhile the conversion is uneven not only in time but also in space; factors such as edgc length shared by cultivated land and built-up land, agricultural value per hectare, non-agriculture value per hectarc, GDP, total population, farmer＇s net income per capita and time had significant effects on this conversion.

Multi-objective Programming and Social Welfare Analysis of Rural–urban Land Conversion Decision-making

Rural-urban land conversion is an inevitable phenomenon in urbanization arid industrialization. And the decision-making issue about this conversion is multi-objective because the social decision maker （the whole of central government and local authority） has to integrate the requirements of different interest groups （rural collective economic organizations, peasants, urban land users and the ones affected indirectly） and harmonize the sub-objects （economic, social and ecological outcomes） of this land allocation process. This paper established a multi-objective programming model for rural-urban land conversion decision-making and made some social welfare analysis correspondingly. Result shows that the general object of rural-urban land conversion decision-making is to reach the optimal level of social welfare in a certain state of resources allocation, while the preference of social decision makers and the value judgment of interest groups are two crucial factors which determine the realization of the rural-urban land conversion decision-making objects.

Welfare Balance of Different Interest Groups During Rural-urban Land Conversion

Rural-urban land conversion is currently a common social economic phenomenon during the process of economic development and rural urbanization in China. Rural-urban land conversion is positively effective as far as social and economic benefits are concerned (Yang, 2002), but its negative effect is also evident, resulting in such problems as low efficiency of rural land configuration and loss of social welfare. Consequently, farm-ers should also have an equal chance to enjoy the social welfare enhanced by land conversion. Based on the theories of welfare economy, this paper puts forward policy suggestions by discussing the welfare changes of various interest groups, builds the model of welfare distribution, and analyzes the conditions of maximizing social welfare. The absolute and opposite value of social welfare is closely related with the speed of rural-urban land conversion, and governments should give farmers and collectives fair compensa-tion to make up for the utility loss caused by land expropriation, which are conclusions drawn from this paper. This study aims to provide a theoretical basis for regulating targets and evaluation criteria, realizing the mechanism and implementation of public po-lices during rural-urban land conversion.

Payment for Environmental Services:The Sloping Land Conversion Program in Ningxia Autonomous Region of China

China＇s Sloping Land Conversion Program has been implemented since 2002. It aims to achieve goals of ecological recovery and poverty alleviation, by retiring steeply sloping land from crop production and freeing surplus agricultural labor for off-farm activities. Given the huge investment that has been poured into it, and its ecological and social impacts, this government-initiated program has attracted significant academic attention and triggered a flood of debate. Since 2004, the debate has concentrated on the sustainability of the program. Although targets have been overachieved in some provinces, concern has still emerged regarding the livelihood of farmers after subsidies stop. The present paper analyzes the implementation of the Sloping Land Conversion Program in Ningxia Autonomous Region, with a focus on the required social capital for sustained participation o f farmers and the development of off-farm economic activities.

Impacts of Cultivated Land Conversion on Environmental Sustainability and Grain Self-sufficiency in China

Using provincial data, the present paper examines the impact of cultivated land conversion on agriculture and the environment. It is found that the grain production center is gradually moving towards more fragile and water scarce areas, putting more pressure on the environment. Land conversion caused large losses in ecosystem service values in the 1990s, but large scale ecological restoration programs have been implemented since 2000 to compensate for such losses. The ecological restoration programs are concentrated in regions with relatively low land productivity, whereas cultivated land conversion usually takes place in areas with relatively high land productivity. Newly-cultivated land, especially that in areas marginally suit for agricultural production, is likely to have much lower productivity levels than the original cultivated land. Because the stock of potentially cultivable land is almost exhausted, China＇s grain self-suffiency policy can only be maintained by preserving the available stock of arable land and increasing its productivity in a sustainable way.

Assessing the Impact of the Sloping Land Conversion Program on Rural Household Income in the Upper Reaches of Minjiang River,China

One secondary target of the SLCP is poverty reduction. Therefore,the impact of the SLCP on household income is a subject of much research. This study was conducted to determine whether the SLCP has affected incomes of households at different income levels13 years after its implementation. Using survey data from 2012 on rural households＇ livelihoods in the upper reaches of the Minjiang River in Sichuan Province and using the non-participating households as a reference,the current impact of the SLCP on household income is calculated with a multiple linear regression model and a quantile regression model. The socio-geographic features of participating and non-participating households are also be compared. The results show no significant differences between the SLCP participating and non-participating households in many socio-demographic characteristics. Participating in the SLCP had no significant impact on household income at all income levels in the study area in 2012. This finding suggests that the SLCP is not currently increasing household income significantly in the study area,and that the implementation plan of the SLCP should be changed in this area in order to achieve its poverty reduction goal.

Extension Strategies in Sloping Land Conversion Program in China: An Analysis of Strengths and Limitations

The Sloping Land Conversion Program （SLCP）is one of the biggest ecological rehabilitation efforts in China covering an area of 15.04million hectares （ha）and involving 20.19million rural households and 97.53million farmers .Forestry extension plays a crucial role in the face of economic losses in the short run.This paper summarizes the extension schemes and methodologies adopted ,lessons learnt and specific case analysis is presented.The analysis shows that there is a need to combine the traditional,top-bottom approach with bottom=top＂problem solving ＂approach and strengthen the involvement and bi-directional communications of multiple stakeholders and sectors.This has significant implications for extension strategies to promote the participation of rural masses in ecological rehabilitation efforts that demand some sacrifices from them in the short run.

Practical Application of Participatory Approach in Land Conversion Project Planning: A Case in Quxian County, Sichuan Province

Application of participatory approaches in governmental forestry projects is a bran-new forestry design method. The purpose is to plan the utilization of land correctly, and to determine planting sites, planting species, participating households and management models, based on the projects' requirements and the farmers' demands. Participatory approaches are now practiced in some of the counties in Land Conversion Project. The paper presents the significance and necessity of practicing community mechanis...

Impact of Labor Transfer on Agricultural Land Use Conversion at Rural Household Level Based on Logit Model

Since land and labor force are primary resources to be used and controlled by rural households, the allocation of labor forces will influence land uses, and further lead to land use conversion. The present study used the Binary Logit model to investigate the influence of labor force transfer, characteristics of rural households, location, and land market on agricultural land use conversion at rural household level. This study was conducted based on 329 valid questionnaires, which were obtained in Changshu, Rudong, and Tongshan counties, respectively representing the southern, middle and northern areas of Jiangsu Province. The results showed that land market participation, location, zonal difference and labor transfer had strong influences on agricultural land use conversion. The participation of land market had a strong positive effect on land use conversion, especially for the farmland converted to the fishpond. The nearer to the county seat, the more conversion of land use occurred. Particularly, the labor force transfer caused by wage employment decreased this conversion probability, while the labor transfer caused by self-employment led to more conversion; and the increasing of income from labor transfer increased the conversion. Moreover, land use con- versions demonstrated zonal difference, which were more in Rudong and Changshu counties than in Tongshan County, and the factors influencing this conversion were different in the three regions.

The causes and environmental effects of land use conversion during agricultural restructuring in Northeast China

During the last decade of the 20th century, extensive conversion inagricultural land use took place in Northeast China. The goal of this study is to ascertain itsspatial distribution and regional differentiation, determine its causes, and analyze itsenvironmental impact. Especially we attempt to elucidate how institutional constraints havefacilitated the change at a time of agrarian restructuring when newly emerging free market washybridized with the former planned economy. Information on six categories of land use was mappedfrom interpretation of Landsat TM images recorded in 1990, 1995 and 2000. Most of land use changestook place during the first half of the decade, coinciding with abrupt and chaotic changes ingovernment directives. Farmland was changed mainly to woodland, water body and built-up areas whilewoodland and grassland were converted chiefly to farmland. Spatially, the change from farmland towoodland was restricted to the west of the study area. The change from grassland to farmland tookplace in the grazing and farming interlocked west. These chaotic and occasionally conflictingchanges were largely caused by lack of stability and consistency in agricultural land use policiespromulgated. They have exerted adverse impacts on the local environment, including land degradation,increased flooding, and modified climate regime.

Mutual Conversion of Land Use between Urban and Rural Area in the Process of Urbanization: A Case Study of Shandong Province

Urbanization is one of the driving forces for the land use change in type and structure, and its prominent effect is to convert rural land to urban land. This paper takes Shan-dong Province as an example to analyze the current situation of the mutual conversion between the urban and rural areas from the aspects of the structure of land use, the decreasing tendency of the cultivated land, the changes of land use in urban and rural residential areas. It points out that cultivated land is converted to residential area land, industrial and/or mining area land. The relationship between the urban area land and the cultivated land is more direct; meanwhile, the changes of rural residential area lag behind obviously. The decrease of the cultivated land and the decline of soil quality will be the two difficult problems in the process of urbanization.

Analysis on the Influencing Factors and Control Measures of "Non-Grain Conversion" of Cultivated Land in Agricultural Land Transfer

Through the method of literature analysis,this paper analyzes the present situation of the"non-grain conversion"of cultivated land in the transfer of agricultural land in China,summarizes the influencing factors and consequences of the phenomenon of"non-grain conversion"of cultivated land in the transfer of agricultural land,and finally puts forward some measures.The study found that costs and benefits are the fundamental factors affecting the"non-grain conversion"of cultivated land in agricultural land transfer,and other main factors include government and policy guidance,industrial and commercial capital to the countryside,labor transfer and so on.The"non-grain conversion"of cultivated land in the transfer of agricultural land is a serious threat to China s food security,leading to the decline of the quality of agricultural land and the destruction of the ecological environment,as well as the risk of breach of contract in"industrial and commercial capital to the countryside".Based on the understanding of the influencing factors of non-grain conversion,this paper puts forward the following measures:strengthening the control of the use of cultivated land in agricultural land transfer;implementing accurate subsidies for grain cultivation and ensuring the benefit of grain growers;adopting grain planting incentive mechanism to increase grain enthusiasm;strengthening media publicity and education to enhance food security awareness.The improvement of the current situation of the"non-grain conversion"of cultivated land in the transfer of agricultural land will be of great significance to the protection of agricultural land and food security in China.

Importance and Countermeasures of Curbing the Conversion of Agricultural Land to Non-agricultural Land under the Background of the Rural Revitalization Strategy

Farmland is the most basic element for farmers’survival and development,and has a social security function.The conversion of agricultural land to non-agricultural land has gradually become the primary factor in the reduction of agricultural land in various regions of China,seriously endangering China’s food security.Under the background of the rural revitalization strategy,the emergence of the conversion of agricultural land to non-agricultural land and the inevitability of its development were analyzed from both the acceleration of urbanization and the increase in land demand by using the literature research method.The importance of curbing the conversion of agricultural land to non-agricultural land to achieve the grand goal of strong agriculture,beautiful rural areas,and rich farmers was clarified,and then countermeasures and suggestions to curb the conversion of agricultural land to non-agricultural land were put forward,which is of great significance to promoting the effective implementation of China’s rural revitalization strategy.

Effects of land use changes for ecological restoration on soil moisture on the Chinese Loess Plateau:a meta-analytical approach

Soil moisture is an important resource for plant growth on the arid and semi-arid Loess Plateau of China where the‘‘Grain for Green’’project was launched in 1999,but there has been no systematic evaluation of soil moisture from the effects of ecological restoration at a regional scale.We systematically assessed 63 published studies during 2000-2015,including 2050 observations at 68 sites on the Loess Plateau with the aim of determining soil moisture changes and the factors influencing those changes.We found that,after land use conversion,soil moisture decreased by 17%in the upper 100 cm soil layer and that tree plantations and shrub lands appeared to cause soil moisture depletion which became increasingly serious with soil depth.The decrease of soil moisture was significantly influenced by the planting species in all restoration types(tree plantations,shrub lands,and grasslands).We also found that tree plantations and grasslands converted from farmlands consumed more soil moisture than from wasteland(including bare land,abandoned land and wild grasslands).Artificial restoration led to significant soil moisture reduction,but natural restoration had little effect on soil moisture.Therefore,natural restoration should be an alternative restoration practice on the Loess Plateau.These results will provide helpful information for artificial afforestation and planning ecological restoration campaigns for policy makers on water-limited regions.

Land degradation, government subsidy, and smallholders＇ conservation decision： the case of the loess plateau in China

Land degradation is one of the severe environmental problems in China. In order to combat land degradation, a soil conservation program was introduced since 2000 to reduce soil erosion by converting slope-cultivated land into forestry and pasture. This paper represents the first systematic attempt to investigate the impact of the soil conservation program on land degradation in the loess plateau. The results indicate that the soil conservation program to convert slope fields into forest or pasture is an effective way to combat soil erosion. However, a subsidy that is higher than profit of land use activity of slope fields before their conversion into forest and pasture is needed to encourage farmers to join the conservation program. A policy measure to encourage and assist farmers to develop sedentary livestock by using crops produced from fields as well as fodder and forage grass from the converted slope fields might contribute to combat soil erosion. Increase in off-farm job opportunities may encourage households to reduce cultivation in slope fields. That implies a policy measure to encourage rural urbanization might contribute to combat soil erosion.

Agricultural land loss in China's urbanization process

In China, urbanization of agricultural land around city agglomerations increases rapidly. Rapid urbanization of agricultoral land affects food supply, land value and ecological balance in the society. In China, the urban built-up area had increased by 40% from 1996 to 2003. This increase came predominantly from farmland surrounding the cities. How the ongoing urbanization of China affects its agricultural land is the focus of this paper. In current studies, we have found that population density; urbanization degree and personal income are key factors that influence the urbanization process. Based on this, relation model has been established and to predict the general trends of the urban area expansion in China in 2020.In 2020, the constructed urban area of China would be increased by 1.3 times compared wtth 2003. In 2020, this study anticipates the conversion of about 32,562 sq. kin. agricultural land of China for urban use.