Brain Research on Mental Disorders: A Criticism

Objective: To expose the problems and inherent limitations of neuroscience-based brain research on mental disorders. Method: Discussion of the theory underlying brain research on mental disorders, followed by a systematic evaluation of typical studies. Results: The fundamental problem is that brain researchers fail to differentiate between biological mental disorders in which brain processes cause the disorder (notably schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and melancholic depression) and learned mental disorders in which brain processes mediate but do not cause the disorder (which is the case with reactive depression, reactive anxiety, OCD, and PTSD). Researchers have been unsuccessful in identifying mechanisms in the brain that cause biological mental disorders, and will never be able to locate the innumerable specific neural connections that mediate learned mental disorders. Moreover, the author’s review of typical studies in this field shows that they have serious problems with theory, measurement, and data analysis, and that their findings cannot be trusted. Conclusions: Neuroscience-based brain research on mental disorders, unlike other neurological research, has been an expensive failure and it is not worth continuing.

Effects of Batroxobin on Spatial Learning and Memory Disorder of Rats with Temporal Ischemia and the Expression of HSP32 and HSP70

The effect of Batroxobin on spatial memory disorder of left temporal ischemic rats and the expression of HSP32 and HSP70 were investigated with Morri`s water maze and immunohistochemistry methods. The results showed that the mean reaction time and distance of temporal ischemic rats in searching a goal were significantly longer than those of the sham-operated rats and at the same time HSP32 and HSP70 expression of left temporal ischemic region in rats was significantly increased as compared with the sham-operated rats. However, the mean reaction time and distance of the Batroxobin-treated rats were shorter and they used normal strategies more often and earlier than those of ischemic rats. The number of HSP32 and HSP70 immune reactive cells of Batroxobin-treated rats was also less than that of the ischemic group. In conclusion, Batroxobin can improve spatial memory disorder of temporal ischemic rats; and the down-regulation of the expression of HSP32 and HSP70 is probably related to the attenuation of ischemic injury.

Neurodevelopmental disorders:An innovative perspective via the response to intervention model

Neurodevelopmental disorders are a group of conditions classified together by the most recent edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders which include intellectual disability,communication disorders,autism spectrum disorder,attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder,specific learning disorder(SLD),and motor disorders.SLD is present in many students,who exhibit significant difficulties in the acquisition of reading,written expression,and mathematics,mostly due to problems with executive functions(EF).The present study is a review of the current situation of neurodevelopmental disorders and SLD focusing on the benefits of the response to intervention model(RtI),which allows the combination of evaluation and intervention processes.It also addresses the key role of EF.The importance of adapting RtI to new possibilities such as the use of virtual reality is discussed and a theoretical framework for carrying that out is provided.

Effects of Yizhi Capsule (益智胶囊) on Learning and Memory Disorder and β-amyloid Peptide Induced Neurotoxicity in Rats

To explore the effects of Yizhi Capsule （益智胶囊, YZC） on learning and memory disorder and β-amyloid peptide induced neurotoxicity in rats. Methods： Various doses of YZC were administered to Sprague-Dawley （SD） rats for 8 consecutive days, twice a day. On the 8th day of the experiment, scopolamine hydrobromide was intraperitoneally injected to every rat and Morris water maze test and shuttle dark avoidance test were carried out respectively to explore the changes of learning and memory capacities in the rats. Resides, after the cerebral cortical neurons of newborn SD rats aged within 3 days were cultured in vitro for 7 days, drug serum containing YZC was added to the cultured neurons before or after β amyloid peptide25-35 （Aβ25-35） intoxication to observe the protective effect of YZC on neurotoxicity by MTT assay and to determine the LDH content in the supernatant. Results： Compared with those untreated with YZC, the rats having received YZC treatment got superiority in shorter time of platform seeking in Morris water maze test, as well as elongated latent period and less times of error in shuttle dark avoidance test. On the cultured neurons, YZC drug serum could effectively increase the survival rate of Aβ25-35 intoxicated neurons and reduce the LDH contents in cultured supernatant. Conclusion： YZC has an action of improving learning and memory disorder, and good protective effect on Aβ25-35 induced neurotoxicity in SD rats. KEY WORDS

Learning Disorder Secondary Epilepsy: A Case Report

Introduction: Epilepsy is a syndrome characterized by the presence of seizures that can affect the cognitive performance of the individual. Neuropsychology has studied the idiopathic epilepsies to understand if the behavioral and cognitive impairments are associated with electrical discharges in the brain, and not with an injury itself. Objective: To identify cognitive impairments of a child with epilepsy associated with diagnosis of learning disorder. Method: The sample consists of a child diagnosed with epilepsy, nine years old, from Maceió-AL. The methodology applied is a qualitative and descriptive study of a case report. Neuropsychological tests are applied for that purpose. Results: The results of the tests show cognitive deficits, impaired attention, memory and slowness of reasoning. Conclusion: Despite the results, it cannot be said in this case that epilepsy was the only factor that triggered the learning disorder, because the child had related comorbidities.

Verbal Dyspraxia: A Case Study

Introduction: While approaching the aspect of learning disorders, particular attention is paid to verbal dyspraxia, a phenomenon that runs its course regularly over the last years. Verbal dyspraxia is inherent in the person without mental disorders and accompanies them throughout the whole spectrum of life. Comorbidity is an added issue. Although dyspraxia is met in homogeneous groups, some common elements such as intelligence, difficulty regarding linguistic skills, low learning performance and low self-esteem are present. Purpose: The object is to research how dyspraxia is manifested and how it affects a 6-year-old boy as well as the possibility of promptly interfering and simplifying his everyday life. Method: In the current case study, Achenbach’s questionnaire was used, combined with the use of expressive vocabulary. Results: The results of the research were unveiled through experts’ references in coordinance with the conferences conducted. Conclusion: Winding up, dyspraxia is a learning disorder that exists within the person through their lifespan. Immediate diagnosis, combined with experts’ personalized intervention programs (and perhaps, a differentiated curriculum, where applicable) can guide the person to live up to the educational needs. Family’s role is to be supportive, intending to eliminate possible emotional strains.

The role of hypogonadism in Klinefelter Syndrome

Klinefelter syndrome （KS） （47, XXY） is the most abundant sex-chromosome disorder, and is a common cause of infertility and hypogonadism in men. Most men with KS go through life without knowing the diagnosis, as only 25% are diagnosed and only a few of these before puberty. Apart from hypogonadism and azoospermia, most men with KS suffer from some degree of learning disability and may have various kinds of psychiatric problems. The effects of long-term hypogonadism may be difficult to discern from the gene dose effect of the extra X-chromosome. Whatever the cause, alterations in body composition, with more fat and less muscle mass and diminished bone mineral mass, as well as increased risk of metabolic consequences, such as type 2 diabetes and the metabolic syndrome are all common in KS. These findings should be a concern as they are not simply laboratory findings; epidemiological studies in KS populations show an increased risk of beth hospitalization and death from various diseases. Testosterone treatment should be offered to KS patients from early puberty, to secure a proper masculine development, nonetheless the evidence is weak or nonexisting, since no randomized controlled trials have ever been published. Here, we will review the current knowledge of hypogonadism in KS and the rationale for testosterone treatment and try to give our best recommendations for surveillance of this rather common, but often ignored, syndrome.

Effects of subconvulsive electrical stimulation to the hippocampus on emotionality and spatial learning and memory in rats

Objective To observe the effects of repeated subconvulsive electrical stimuli to the hippocampus on the emotional behavior and spatial learning and memory ability in rats.Methods One hundred and eight male Wistar rats were randomized into 3 groups. Animals in group SE (n = 42) were given subconvulsive electrical stimulation to the hippocampus through a constant pulsating current of 100 μA with an intratrain frequency of 25 Hz, pulse duration of 1 millisecond, train duration of 10 seconds and interstimulus interval of 7 minutes, 8 times a day, for 5 days. In the electrode control group or CE group (n = 33), animals were implanted with an electrode in the hippocampus, but were not stimulated. Group NC (n =33) animals received no electrode or any stimulation. The emotional behavior of experimental rats was examined by activity in an unfamiliar open field and resistance to capture from the open field, while the spatial learning and memory ability was measured during training in a Morris water maze.Results The stimulated rats tested 1 month after the last round of stimulation displayed substantial decreases in open field activity (scale: 10. 4±2. 3, P<0. 05) and increases in resistance to capture (scale: 2. 85±0. 56, P < 0. 01 ). The amount of time for rats in group SE to find the platform (latency) as a measurement for spatial bias was prolonged (29±7) seconds after 15 trials in the water maze, P<0. 05). The experimental rats swam aimlessly in all four pool quadrants during the probe trial in the Morris water maze.Conclusions Following repeated subconvulsive electrical stimuli to the hippocampus, rats displayed long-lasting significant abnormalities in emotional behavior, increased anxiety and defensiveness, enhanced ease to and delayed habituation to startlement, transitory spatial learning and memory disorder, which parallels many of the symptoms in posttraumatic stress disorder patients.

Effects of bisphenol A and bisphenol analogs on the nervous system

Estrogen impacts neural development;meanwhile, it has a protective effect on the brain. Bisphenols, primarily bisphenol A (BPA), can exert estrogen-like or estrogen-interfering effects by binding with estrogen receptors. Extensive studies have suggested that neurobehavioral problems, such as anxiety and depression, can be caused by exposure to BPA during neural development. Increasing attention has been paid to the effects on learning and memory of BPA exposure at different developmental stages and in adulthood. Further research is required to elucidate whether BPA increases the risk of neurodegenerative diseases and the underlying mechanisms, as well as to assess whether BPA analogs, such as bisphenol S and bisphenol F, influence the nervous system.

Does acupuncture have a positive effect on school success in children?

OBJECTIVE:To evaluate school success in pediatric patients undergoing acupuncture treatment for variousindications.METHODS: The grades achieved during both school terms by children undergoing acupuncture treatment for various indications at the pediatric out patient clinic of Ulus State Hospital were analyzed. Exam grades in mathematics, social studies,and Turkish was compared between the first and the second terms. Forty children were included in thestudy,with 22 male and 18 female,and their average age was 11.1 years. These patients were undergoing acupuncture treatment for attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder(ADHD), enuresis nocturna, migraine, obesity, atopic dermatitis, alopecia areata, and Tourette's syndrome. Treatments were done at the beginning of the second term. Four of the 25 patients with ADHD had borderline intelligence quotients.The report cards of all 40 patients were examined, and their grades in the first and these condschool term were compared.RESULTS: There was a statistically significant increase in the grades obtained in mathematics, social studies, and Turkish(P<0.005) by the students from the first to the second school term. When 4 ADHD patients with borderline deficiency in intelligence were excluded, and the grades among the 21 patients with ADHD were compared for both terms, there was also a statistically significant increase in mathematics, social studies, and Turkish grades(P<0.05).CONCLUSION: Acupuncture contributed to the academic success of the children who under went acupuncture treatment for their primary symptoms.