A Physical Interpretation of Mass-Energy Equivalence Based on the Orthogonal Collision

Einstein described the mass-energy equivalence as the most important result of special relativity. But more than a century after Einstein first derived the relationship between mass-energy equivalence (or mass-energy equation), questions left for people are how to understand that mass and energy are somehow equivalent, and how to give the dynamical process for the conversion from mass to energy (or vice versa). This paper first interprets the formula of mass-energy equivalence published by Einstein in 1905, and then gives the equivalence relationship of mass-energy transition based on the dynamics of particle orthogonal collision. As a result, the orthogonal collision of two high-energy mass particles can generate a huge mass-energy density, equivalent to the total energy of N new particles, which is a one-way dynamic process that generates new mass-energy density and new matter. This conversion of mass into energy has nothing to do with special relativity.

A Revised Interpretation of the Thermodynamic Theory Including the Einstein Mass-Energy Relation <i>E</i>= <i>mc</i>²

Thermodynamics being among the most synthetic theories of physics and the mass-energy relation E = mc2 among the most general equations of science, it is somewhat surprising that this latter is not explicitly present in the laws of thermodynamics. Coupling this observation with the conceptual difficulties often felt in learning thermodynamics leads to the idea that both situations may have the same cause. On the basis of these clues, this paper is intended to provide complementary arguments to a hypothesis already presented. It consists of showing the existence of an imperfect compatibility between the conventional formulations of the first and second laws of thermodynamics and suggesting the need of the mass-energy relation to solving the problem.

General Derivation of Mass-Energy Relation without Electrodynamics or Einstein’s Postulates

The mass-energy equation ?is derived in general from Newton’s equation of motion without use of electrodynamics, or Einstein’s Postulates which were presented in his superb 1905 paper on Special Relativity (SR). This was previously not thought to be possible. This novel derivation of an accelerated body of rest mass m0 is compared with the traditional SR inertial derivation. A discussion is given of pre-1905, electrostatic and electrodynamic derivations of the mass-energy relation yielding , as well as more recent ones. A concise pre-relativity history of the mass-energy relation is traced back to Newton in 1717.

The Mass-Energy Equivalence Principle in Fluid Dynamics

From Lagrangian formalism as in Classical Field Theory and within the theoretical scheme of the Hamilton-Type Variational Principle, the mass-energy equivalence principle for any fluid is obtained.

Properties of a MOS Device on Single Layer Molybdenum Disulfide

The properties of a metal-oxide-semiconductor device on a single layer MoS_(2)(molybdenum disulfide)semiconductor are determined theoretically utilizing the concept of physics that the carrier effective masses in materials are related to the intrinsic Fermi energy levels in materials by the universal mass-energy equivalence equation given as dE/E=dm/m,where E is the energy and m is the mass of the free electron.The known parameters of electron effective mass of 0.48 m and the direct bandgap of 1.8 eV for monolayer MoS_(2) semiconductor are utilized to determine the properties of the MOS(metal-oxide-semiconductor)device,with the given previous research consequence that the threshold for electron heating in SiO_(2) is 2 MV/cm-eV.

A Probabilistic Method to Determine Whether the Speed of Light Is Constant

Although the formula of mass-energy equivalence was derived from the hypothesis that the speed of light in free space is constant, conversely, the purpose of this research is to show that a method of probabilistically determining whether the speed of light is constant is derived from this formula. By considering the formula of mass-energy equivalence to be a function of the energy of an object moving at speed V, the probability density function (PDF) of the energy can be obtained using the inverse function of this formula, if the speed of light obeys a probability distribution. The main result is that the PDF of the energy diverges to infinity at a certain energy value regardless of the PDF of the speed of light. Thus, when the speed calculated from this value enters a certain range of the speed of light as V increases stepwise from below 299,792,458 m/s, the PDF of the energy should increase abruptly. If not, then the speed of light is constant. This is the method of probabilistically determining whether the speed of light is constant. An experimental method is proposed to confirm this.

The Reasons Suggesting a Close Link between Thermodynamics and Relativity

Since the advent of relativity, it is widely accepted that the law of conservation of energy must include the energy created by disintegration of matter, or converted into matter. The aim of the present paper deals with the insertion of this concept into the basic equations of thermodynamics.

Mass-to-Energy Conversion, the Astrophysical Mechanism

A new interpretation of the relativistic equation relating total-, momentum-, and mass-energies is presented. With the aid of the familiar energy-relationship triangle, old and new interpretations are compared. And the key difference is emphasized—apparent relativity versus intrinsic relativity. Mass-to-energy conversion is then brought about by adopting a three-part strategy: 1) Make the motion relative to the universal space medium. This allows the introduction of the concept of intrinsic energy (total, kinetic, and mass energies) as counterpart to the apparent version. 2) Recognize that a particle’s mass property diminishes with increase in speed. This means introducing the concept of intrinsic mass (which varies with intrinsic speed). 3) Impose a change in the particle’s gravitational environment. Instead of applying an electromagnetic accelerating force or energy in order to alter the particle’s total energy, there will simply be an environmental change. Thus, it is shown how to use relativity equations and relativistic motion—in a way that exploits the distinction between apparent and innate levels of reality—to explain the mass-to-energy-conversion mechanism. Moreover, the mechanism explains the 100-percent conversion of mass to energy;which, in turn, leads to an explanation of the mechanism driving astrophysical jets.

Motion Equation and Solution of Mushroom Cloud

Using model like hot air bloom with zero-weighted membrane wrapped hot air, surrounded by cold air, this paper sets up a partial differential equation (PDE) of motion of mushroom cloud by modifying Navier-Stokes (N-S) equations. The obtained equation is a vector PDE. It states that the derivative of velocity is with respect to time proportions to the gradient of temperature with respect to trace. Its solution is obtained by the method of separating variables for scalar function. These results have been compared with well agreement with literatures. Highlight: The Principle of Minimum Energy Release (PMER) is used to prove the pulse-mode of explosion of nuclear weapon, as great Earthquake, and optimum path problems.

On Universal Space and Time

In earlier papers [1]-[4], it was shown that the consistency of the concept of time with motion requires time and distance to be of the same dimension, and thus measured by the same unit. The arising reduced system of units revealed that mass and energy were only different facets of one entity, and resulted in the well-known mass-energy equivalence formula as a natural consequence. The physical space can be identified with any inertial frame, but when it comes to comparing the results of measurements in two frames, or more, only one frame, say S, can be taken stationary and identified with the physical space, whereas all other inertial frames are moving relative to S. The equivalence of inertial frames as sites of one physical world implies that an intrinsic units system of length, time, mass and charge should be defined in terms of basic constituent physical blocks that have the same identity in all inertial frames. A basic feature of the universal space and time theory (UST) is that the same one time prevails in all inertial frames. The scaling transformations (STs) that relate the geometric distances in two frames, S (s) when chosen the stationary frame, are derived, and applied to explain the Doppler’s effect. The time distance between a moving object in S and an observer depends on its state of motion;and the Euclidean form of the STs is employed to explain arrival of some meta-stable at the earth’s surface despite its short lifetime. The quantitative predicted Doppler’s effect, which is in a striking agreement with the Ives-Stilwell experimental results, coincides with the relativistic prediction for longitudinal motion, but yet predicts a complete absence of a transverse effect at a right angle. In coming parts of this work it will be shown that the UST explains elaborately the drag effect, stellar aberration, and produces naturally the relativistic mechanics. The UST will also be completed through deriving the scaling transformations of the second type, by which the null results of Michelson and Morley experiment, Michelson and Gale experiment, and the Sagnac effect are explained. The current work and our intended future works in UST are new versions containing basic conceptions and visions that didn’t appear in earlier versions [1]-[6].

An Extended Interpretation of the Concept of Entropy Opening a Link between Thermodynamics and Relativity

It is well known that thermodynamics raises conceptual difficulties. Far to be limited to students having to learn the subject, this impression is sometimes mentioned by specialists themselves who confess not being totally sure of the consistency of the thermodynamic theory, despite the fact that its practical usefulness is indisputable. The present paper deals with this interesting question and leads to the idea that there is an imperfect convergence between the way of using the thermodynamic tool and the way of understanding its significance. Illustrated by a very simple example, the discussion can be followed by every scientist having the fundamental basis in thermodynamics. The suggested hypothesis is that the Einstein mass-energy relation is closely associated to the concept of entropy, opening a link between thermodynamics and relativity.

A Suggestion to Make Thermodynamic Theory More Easily Understandable

The conceptual difficulties encountered in thermodynamics are well known and are certainly the reasons that have led the great physicist Arnold Sommerfeld, a long time ago, to say that understanding thermodynamics is not easy. The situation remains nearly the same today and is due to the fact that the tools used in thermodynamics, i.e. the equations, are not in good accordance with the laws of thermodynamics. Since the efficiency of the tools cannot be contested, it is probably the formulation of the laws that needs to be revised. On the basis of arguments already evoked in previous papers, the suggestion presented below is a contribution going in this sense and inserting the Einstein’s relation E = mc2 in the thermodynamic reasoning.

A New Interpretation on the Non-Newtonian Properties of Particle Mass

It is well known that the mass of a particle has properties different from Newtonian mechanics. First, it is speed-dependent. Second, it is convertible to energy. These properties were generally thought to be derived from the principle of relativity (PR). We have conducted a careful examination of the historical records and found that the non-Newtonian properties of mass were derived not so much based on PR, but more based on Einstein’s intuitive thinking that radiation and matters behave similarly. This gives us a hint: Since both photon and electron can behave as a particle as well as a wave, can such a wave nature account for the deviations from Newtonian mechanics? Thus, we have developed a wave model to describe the motion of a free particle with or without rest mass. We found that both the speed-dependence of mass and the mass-energy equivalence can indeed be derived based on the wave properties of a particle. This wave hypothesis has several advantages;it can naturally explain why particles can be created in the vacuum and why a particle cannot travel faster than the speed of light.

Orthogonal Collision of Particles Produces New Physical State

Collider is a machine or device that usually causes two beams of high-speed particles moving to collide in a straight line. The fundamental purpose of a collision is to obtain an abnormal mass-energy density and attempt to discover new physics and new substances namely new physical states. However, linear collisions are not easy to achieve the above purpose. Through the comparable experiment of rear-end collision, head-on collision and orthogonal collision of two low-velocity particles, this paper theoretically proposes a new idea that the orthogonal collision between two-beam high-velocity particles can really produce an abnormal mass-energy density. This machine based on the new idea of orthogonal collision can not only greatly reduce the construction cost of colliders, but also is the most effective way to achieve the purpose of collision.

Hydrodynamic Analogy to Special Relativity

By studying of a slender body moving in a fluid wave-medium, e.g., in air or in shallow water, it was found that the hydrodynamic momentum mass and the total energy of the fluid field can be expressed in forms of and E=mc2, where v is the body moving speed, c is the wave speed and is the hydrodynamic mass at the zero speed. Thus a hydrodynamic analogy to the relativistic particle motion in vacuum can be traced. The velocity dependence of mass and the mass-energy equivalence are universal for any wave medium, which should not be regarded as a consequence of relative Lorentz time-space, but one of the existence of wave in the medium. Its further inference leads to an even more significant physical picture. If the mass particle moves in an unbounded space at a supercritical speed, i.e. , waves are generated and radiated from it, like the Mach waves by the supersonic plane, and the particle itself experiences a resistance as reaction from the wave radiation. By an extension of this analogy, it can be interred from a hydrodynamic superconductive phenomenon that particles or waves can move possibly at a superluminal speed without experiencing any resistance through a tunnel (a bounded space) under certain conditions. Therefore the speed of light is not the limit of our physical world and superluminal phenomena are possible.