MODELING OF METAL-SEMICONDUCTOR-METAL PHOTODETECTOR

A complete model of Metal-Semiconductor-Metal Photodetector(MSM-PD) is presented. It can be used in any circuit simulators. Simulated DC characteristics for a GaAs MSM-PD are in good agreement with reported results.

Near-infrared metal-semiconductor-metal photodetector based on semi-insulating GaAs and interdigital electrodes

Metal-semiconductor-metal photodetectors on semi-insulating Ga As with interdigital electrodes showed significant enhancement in the spectral response in the near-infrared region as the electrode spacing is reduced. The photocurrent for the device with 5 μm interdigital spacing is five orders of magnitude higher than the dark current, and the room temperature detectivity is on the order of 2.4 × 1012cm Hz1∕2W-1at 5 V bias. Furthermore,the spectral response of this device possesses strong dependence on the polarization of incident light showing potential plasmonic effects with only microscale dimensions. These experimental data were analyzed using optical simulation to confirm the response of the devices.

Theoretical optimization of the characteristics of ZnO metal-semiconductor-metal photodetectors

A two-dimensional model of a metal-semiconductor-metal （MSM） ZnO-based photodetector （PD） is developed. The PD is based on a drift diffusion model of a semiconductor that allows the calculation of potential distribution inside the structure, the transversal and longitudinal distributions of the electric field, and the distribution of carrier concentration. The ohmicity of the contact has been confirmed. The dark current of MSM PD based ZnO for different structural dimensions are likewise calculated. The calculations are comparable with the experimental results. Therefore, the influence with respect to parameters s （finger spacing） and w （finger width） is studied, which results in the optimization of these parameters. The best optimization found to concur with the experimental results is s = 16 μm, w = 16 μm, l = 250 μm, L = 350 μm, where l is the finger length and L is the length of the structure. This optimization provides a simulated dark current eaual to 24.5 nA at the polarization of 3 V.

High responsivity photodetectors based on graphene/WSe_(2) heterostructure by photogating effect

Graphene, with its zero-bandgap electronic structure, is a highly promising ultra-broadband light absorbing material.However, the performance of graphene-based photodetectors is limited by weak absorption efficiency and rapid recombination of photoexcited carriers, leading to poor photodetection performance. Here, inspired by the photogating effect, we demonstrated a highly sensitive photodetector based on graphene/WSe_(2) vertical heterostructure where the WSe_(2) layer acts as both the light absorption layer and the localized grating layer. The graphene conductive channel is induced to produce more carriers by capacitive coupling. Due to the strong light absorption and high external quantum efficiency of multilayer WSe_(2), as well as the high carrier mobility of graphene, a high photocurrent is generated in the vertical heterostructure. As a result, the photodetector exhibits ultra-high responsivity of 3.85×10~4A/W and external quantum efficiency of 1.3 × 10~7%.This finding demonstrates that photogating structures can effectively enhance the sensitivity of graphene-based photodetectors and may have great potential applications in future optoelectronic devices.

ZnSb/Ti_(3)C_(2)T_(x)MXene van der Waals heterojunction for flexible near-infrared photodetector arrays

Two-dimension(2D)van der Waals heterojunction holds essential promise in achieving high-performance flexible near-infrared(NIR)photodetector.Here,we report the successful fabrication of ZnSb/Ti_(3)C_(2)T_(x)MXene based flexible NIR photodetector array via a facile photolithography technology.The single ZnSb/Ti_(3)C_(2)T_(x)photodetector exhibited a high light-to-dark current ratio of 4.98,fast response/recovery time(2.5/1.3 s)and excellent stability due to the tight connection between 2D ZnSb nanoplates and 2D Ti_(3)C_(2)T_(x)MXene nanoflakes,and the formed 2D van der Waals heterojunction.Thin polyethylene terephthalate(PET)substrate enables the ZnSb/Ti_(3)C_(2)T_(x)photodetector withstand bending such that stable photoelectrical properties with non-obvious change were maintained over 5000 bending cycles.Moreover,the ZnSb/Ti_(3)C_(2)T_(x)photodetectors were integrated into a 26×5 device array,realizing a NIR image sensing application.

BaTiO_(3)/p-GaN/Au self-driven UV photodetector with bipolar photocurrent controlled by ferroelectric polarization

Ferroelectric materials are promising candidates for ultraviolet photodetectors due to their ferroelectric effect.In this work,a BaTiO_(3)/p-GaN/Au hybrid heterojunction-Schottky self-driven ultraviolet photodetector was fabricated with excellent bipolar photoresponse property.At 0 V bias,the direction of the photocurrent can be switched by flipping the depolarization field of BaTiO_(3),which allows the performance of photodetectors to be controlled by the ferroelectric effect.Meanwhile,a relatively large responsivity and a fast response speed can be also observed.In particular,when the depolarization field of BaTiO_(3) is in the same direction of the built-in electric field of the Au/p-GaN Schottky junction(up polarized state),the photodetector exhibits a high responsivity of 18 mA/W at 360 nm,and a fast response speed of<40 ms at 0 V.These findings pave a new way for the preparation of high-performance photodetectors with bipolar photocurrents.

Highly Weak-light Sensitive and Dual-band Switchable Photodetector Based on CuI/Si Unilateral Heterojunction

In recent years,copper iodide(CuI)is an emerging p-type wide bandgap semiconductor with high intrinsic Hall mobility,high optical absorption and large exciton binding energy.However,the spectral response and the photoelectric conversion efficiency are limited for CuI-based heterostructure devices,which is related to the difficulty in fabrication of high-quality CuI thin films on other semiconductors.In this study,a p-CuI/n-Si photodiode has been fabricated through a facile solid-phase iodination method.Although the CuI thin film is polycrystalline with obvious structural defects,the CuI/Si diode shows a high weak-light sensitivity and a high rectification ratio of 7.6×10^(4),indicating a good defect tolerance.This is because of the unilateral heterojunction behavior of the formation of the p^(+)n diode.In this work,the mechanism of photocurrent of the p^(+)n diode has been studied comprehensively.Different monochromatic lasers with wavelengths of 400,505,635 and 780 nm have been selected for testing the photoresponse.Under zero-bias voltage,the device is a unilateral heterojunction,and only visible light can be absorbed at the Si side.On the other hand,when a bias voltage of-3 V is applied,the photodiode is switched to a broader“UV-visible”band response mode.Therefore,the detection wavelength range can be switched between the“Visible”and“UV-visible”bands by adjusting the bias voltage.Moreover,the obtained CuI/Si diode was very sensitive to weak light illumination.A very high detectivity of 10^(13)-1014 Jones can be achieved with a power density as low as 0.5μW/cm^(2),which is significantly higher than that of other Cu-based diodes.These findings underscore the high application potential of CuI when integrated with the traditional Si industry.

Metal–Organic Framework‑Based Photodetectors

The unique and interesting physical and chemical properties of metal–organic framework(MOF)materials have recently attracted extensive attention in a new generation of photoelectric applications.In this review,we summarized and discussed the research progress on MOF-based photodetectors.The methods of preparing MOF-based photodetectors and various types of MOF single crystals and thin film as well as MOF composites are introduced in details.Additionally,the photodetectors applications for X-ray,ultraviolet and infrared light,biological detectors,and circularly polarized light photodetectors are discussed.Furthermore,summaries and challenges are provided for this important research field.

Ultraviolet Photodetector based on Sr_(2)Nb_(3)O_(10) Perovskite Nanosheets

Liquid-phase exfoliation was employed to synthesize Sr_(2)Nb_(3)O_(10) perovskite nanosheets with thicknesses down to 1.76 nm.Transmission electron microscopy(TEM),atomic force microscope(AFM),X-ray photoelectron spectrometer(XPS),and other characterization techniques were used to evaluate the atomic structure and chemical composition of the exfoliated nanosheets.A UV photodetector based on individual Sr_(2)Nb_(3)O_(10) nanosheets was prepared to demonstrate the application of an ultraviolet(UV) photodetector.The UV photodetector exhibited outstanding photocurrent and responsivity with a responsivity of 3×10^(5) A·W^(-1) at 5 V bias under 280 nm illumination,a photocurrent of 60 nA,and an on/off ratio of 3×10^(2).

A peak enhancement of frequency response of waveguide integrated silicon-based germanium avalanche photodetector

Avalanche photodetectors(APDs) featuring an avalanche multiplication region are vital for reaching high sensitivity and responsivity in optical transceivers. Waveguide-coupled Ge-on-Si separate absorption, charge, and multiplication(SACM)APDs are popular due to their straightforward fabrication process, low optical propagation loss, and high detection sensitivity in optical communications. This paper introduces a lateral SACM Ge-on-Si APD on a silicon-on-insulator(SOI) wafer, featuring a 10 μm-long, 0.5 μm-wide Ge layer at 1310 nm on a standard 8-inch silicon photonics platform. The dark current measures approximately 38.6 μA at-21 V, indicating a breakdown voltage greater than-21 V for the device. The APDs exhibit a unitgain responsivity of 0.5 A/W at-10 V. At-15 V, their responsivity reaches 2.98 and 2.91 A/W with input powers of-10 and-25 dBm, respectively. The device's 3-dB bandwidth is 15 GHz with an input power of-15 dBm and a gain is 11.68. Experimental results show a peak in impedance at high bias voltages, attributed to inductor and capacitor(LC) circuit resonance, enhancing frequency response. Furthermore, 20 Gbps eye diagrams at-21 V and-9 dBm input power reveal signal to noise ratio(SNRs) of 5.30. This lateral SACM APD, compatible with the stand complementary metal oxide semiconductor(CMOS) process,shows that utilizing the peaking effect at low optical power increases bandwidth.

Exploring Nanoscale Perovskite Materials for Next‑Generation Photodetectors:A Comprehensive Review and Future Directions

The rapid advancement of nanotechnology has sparked much interest in applying nanoscale perovskite materials for photodetection applications.These materials are promising candidates for next-generation photodetectors(PDs)due to their unique optoelectronic properties and flexible synthesis routes.This review explores the approaches used in the development and use of optoelectronic devices made of different nanoscale perovskite architectures,including quantum dots,nanosheets,nanorods,nanowires,and nanocrystals.Through a thorough analysis of recent literature,the review also addresses common issues like the mechanisms underlying the degradation of perovskite PDs and offers perspectives on potential solutions to improve stability and scalability that impede widespread implementation.In addition,it highlights that photodetection encompasses the detection of light fields in dimensions other than light intensity and suggests potential avenues for future research to overcome these obstacles and fully realize the potential of nanoscale perovskite materials in state-of-the-art photodetection systems.This review provides a comprehensive overview of nanoscale perovskite PDs and guides future research efforts towards improved performance and wider applicability,making it a valuable resource for researchers.

Visible-to-near-infrared photodetectors based on SnS/SnSe_(2)and SnSe/SnSe_(2)p−n heterostructures with a fast response speed and high normalized detectivity

The emergent two-dimensional(2D)material,tin diselenide(SnSe_(2)),has garnered significant consideration for its potential in image capturing systems,optical communication,and optoelectronic memory.Nevertheless,SnSe_(2)-based photodetection faces obstacles,including slow response speed and low normalized detectivity.In this work,photodetectors based on SnS/SnSe_(2)and SnSe/SnSe_(2)p−n heterostructures have been implemented through a polydimethylsiloxane(PDMS)−assisted transfer method.These photodetectors demonstrate broad-spectrum photoresponse within the 405 to 850 nm wavelength range.The photodetector based on the SnS/SnSe_(2)heterostructure exhibits a significant responsivity of 4.99×10^(3)A∙W^(−1),normalized detectivity of 5.80×10^(12)cm∙Hz^(1/2)∙W^(−1),and fast response time of 3.13 ms,respectively,owing to the built-in electric field.Meanwhile,the highest values of responsivity,normalized detectivity,and response time for the photodetector based on the SnSe/SnSe_(2)heterostructure are 5.91×10^(3)A∙W^(−1),7.03×10^(12)cm∙Hz^(1/2)∙W−1,and 4.74 ms,respectively.And their photodetection performances transcend those of photodetectors based on individual SnSe_(2),SnS,SnSe,and other commonly used 2D materials.Our work has demonstrated an effective strategy to improve the performance of SnSe_(2)-based photodetectors and paves the way for their future commercialization.

Linear dichroism transition and polarization-sensitive photodetector of quasi-one-dimensional palladium bromide

Perpendicular optical reversal of the linear dichroism transition has promising applications in polarization-sensitive optoelectronic devices. We perform a systematical study on the in-plane optical anisotropy of quasi-one-dimensional PdBr_(2) by using combined measurements of the angle-resolved polarized Raman spectroscopy(ARPRS) and anisotropic optical absorption spectrum. The analyses of ARPRS data validate the anisotropic Raman properties of the PdBr_(2) flake.And anisotropic optical absorption spectrum of PdBr_(2) nanoflake demonstrates distinct optical linear dichroism reversal. Photodetector constructed by PdBr_(2) nanowire exhibits high responsivity of 747 A·W^(-1) and specific detectivity of 5.8×10^(12) Jones. And the photodetector demonstrates prominent polarization-sensitive photoresponsivity under 405-nm light irradiation with large photocurrent anisotropy ratio of 1.56, which is superior to those of most of previously reported quasi-one-dimensional counterparts. Our study offers fundamental insights into the strong optical anisotropy exhibited by PdBr_(2), establishing it as a promising candidate for miniaturization and integration trends of polarization-related applications.

Lewis acid-doped transition metal dichalcogenides for ultraviolet–visible photodetectors

Ultraviolet photodetectors(UV PDs)are widely used in civilian,scientific,and military fields due to their high sensitivity and low false alarm rates.We present a temperature-dependent Lewis acid p-type doping method for transition metal dichalcogenides(TMDs),which can effectively be used to extend the optical response range.The p-type doping based on surface charge transfer involves the chemical adsorption of the Lewis acid SnCl_(4)as a light absorption layer on the surface of WS_(2),significantly enhancing its UV photodetection performance.Under 365 nm laser irradiation,WS_(2)PDs exhibit response speed of 24 ms/20 ms,responsivity of 660 mA/W,detectivity of 3.3×10^(11)Jones,and external quantum efficiency of 226%.Moreover,we successfully apply this doping method to other TMDs materials(such as MoS_(2),MoSe_(2),and WSe_(2))and fabricate WS_(2) lateral p–n heterojunction PDs.

Two-step growth of β-Ga_(2)O_(3) on c-plane sapphire using MOCVD for solar-blind photodetector

In this work,a two-step metal organic chemical vapor deposition(MOCVD)method was applied for growingβ-Ga_(2)O_(3) film on c-plane sapphire.Optimized buffer layer growth temperature(T_(B))was found at 700℃ and theβ-Ga_(2)O_(3) film with full width at half maximum(FWHM)of 0.66°was achieved.A metal−semiconductor−metal(MSM)solar-blind photodetector(PD)was fabricated based on theβ-Ga_(2)O_(3) film.Ultrahigh responsivity of 1422 A/W@254 nm and photo-to-dark current ratio(PDCR)of 10^(6) at 10 V bias were obtained.The detectivity of 2.5×10^(15) Jones proved that the photodetector has outstanding performance in detecting weak signals.Moreover,the photodetector exhibited superior wavelength selectivity with rejection ratio(R_(250 nm)/R_(400 nm))of 105.These results indicate that the two-step method is a promising approach for preparation of high-qualityβ-Ga_(2)O_(3)films for high-performance solar-blind photodetectors.

CuO–TiO_(2) based self-powered broad band photodetector

An efficient room-temperature self-powered,broadband(300 nm–1100 nm)photodetector based on a CuO–TiO_(2)/TiO_(2)/p-Si(100)heterostructure is demonstrated.The CuO–TiO_(2)nanocomposites were grown in a two-zone horizontal tube furnace on a 40 nm TiO_(2)thin film deposited on a p-type Si(100)substrate.The CuO–TiO_(2)/TiO_(2)/p-Si(100)devices exhibited excellent rectification characteristics under dark and individual photoillumination conditions.The devices showed remarkable photo-response under broadband(300–1100 nm)light illumination at zero bias voltage,indicating the achievement of highly sensitive self-powered photodetectors at visible and near-infrared light illuminations.The maximum response of the devices is observed at 300 nm for an illumination power of 10 W.The response and recovery times were calculated as 86 ms and 78 ms,respectively.Moreover,under a small bias,the devices showed a prompt binary response by altering the current from positive to negative under illumination conditions.The main reason behind this binary response is the low turn-on voltage and photovoltaic characteristics of the devices.Under illumination conditions,the generation of photocurrent is due to the separation of photogenerated electron-hole pairs within the built-in electric field at the CuO–TiO_(2)/TiO_(2)interface.These characteristics make the CuO–TiO_(2)/TiO_(2)broadband photodetectors suitable for applications that require high response speeds and self-sufficient functionality.

Highly Sensitive Photodetectors Based on WS_(2) Quantum Dots/GaAs Heterostructures

The performance of the photodetector is significantly impacted by the inherent surface faults in GaAs nanowires(NWs).We combined three-dimensional(3D)gallium arsenide nanowires with zero-dimensional(0D)WS_(2) quantum dot(QDs)materials in a simple and convenient way to form a heterogeneous structure.Various performance enhancements have been realized through the formation of typeⅡenergy bands in heterostructures,opening up new research directions for the future development of photodetector devices.This work successfully fabricated a high-sensitivity photodetector based on WS_(2)QDs/GaAs NWs heterostructure.Under 660 nm laser excitation,the photodetector exhibits a responsivity of 368.07 A/W,a detectivity of 2.7×10^(12)Jones,an external quantum efficiency of 6.47×10^(2)%,a low-noise equivalent power of 2.27×10^(-17)W·Hz^(-1/2),a response time of 0.3 s,and a recovery time of 2.12 s.This study provides a new solution for the preparation of high-performance GaAs detectors and promotes the development of optoelectronic devices for GaAs NWs.

Unraveling the efficiency losses and improving methods in quantum dot-based infrared up-conversion photodetectors

Quantum dot-based up-conversion photodetector,in which an infrared photodiode(PD)and a quantum dot light-emitting diode(QLED)are back-to-back connected,is a promising candidate for low-cost infrared imaging.However,the huge efficiency losses caused by integrating the PD and QLED together hasn’t been studied sufficiently.This work revealed at least three origins for the efficiency losses.First,the PD unit and QLED unit usually didn’t work under optimal conditions at the same time.Second,the potential barriers and traps at the interconnection between PD and QLED units induced unfavorable carrier recombination.Third,much emitted visible light was lost due to the strong visible absorption in the PD unit.Based on the understandings on the loss mechanisms,the infrared up-conversion photodetectors were optimized and achieved a breakthrough photon-to-photon conversion efficiency of 6.9%.This study provided valuable guidance on how to optimize the way of integration for up-conversion photodetectors.

A 4×4 metal-semiconductor-metal rectangular deep-ultraviolet detector array of Ga_(2)O_(3)photoconductor with high photo response

A 4×4 beta-phase gallium oxide(β-Ga_(2)O_(3))deep-ultraviolet(DUV)rectangular 10-fingers interdigital metalsemiconductor-metal(MSM)photodetector array of high photo responsivity is introduced.The Ga2O_(3)thin film is prepared through the metalorganic chemical vapor deposition technique,then used to construct the photodetector array via photolithography,lift-off,and ion beam sputtering methods.The one photodetector cell shows dark current of 1.94 p A,phototo-dark current ratio of 6×10_(7),photo responsivity of 634.15 A·W^(-1),specific detectivity of 5.93×1011cm·Hz1/2·W^(-1)(Jones),external quantum efficiency of 310000%,and linear dynamic region of 108.94 d B,indicating high performances for DUV photo detection.Furthermore,the 16-cell photodetector array displays uniform performances with decent deviation of 19.6%for photo responsivity.

High-performance flexible perovskite photodetectors based on single-crystal-like two-dimensional Ruddlesden-Popper thin films

Two-dimensional Ruddlesden-Popper(2DRP)perovskites have attracted intense research interest for optoelectronic applications,due to their tunable optoelectronic properties and better environmental stability than their threedimensional counterparts.Furthermore,high-performance photodetectors based on single-crystal and polycrystalline thin-films 2DRP perovskites have shown great potential for practical application.However,the complex growth process of single-crystal membranes and uncontrollable phase distribution of polycrystalline films hinder the further development of 2DRP perovskites photodetectors.Herein,we report a series of high-performance photodetectors based on single-crystal-like phase-pure 2DRP perovskite films by designing a novel spacer source.Experimental and theoretical evidence demonstrates that phase-pure films substantially suppress defect states and ion migration.These highly sensitive photodetectors show I_(light)/I_(dark) ratio exceeding 3×10^(4),responsivities exceeding 16 A/W,and detectivities exceeding 3×10^(13) Jones,which are higher at least by 1 order than those of traditional mixed-phase thinfilms 2DRP devices(close to the reported single-crystal devices).More importantly,this strategy can significantly enhance the operational stability of optoelectronic devices and pave the way to large-area flexible productions.