Comparative Analysis on Transition Trap and Middle Income Trap in Current ＇ Economic Development

China now is in the vital stage of the economic transition,which is facing the severe challenge of spanning the middle- income trap.Only the clear recognization of current domestic and overseas situations,the vigorous implementation of self- dependent innovation,and the energetic exploitation of international market will contribute to the fundamental industrial restructuring and the early achievement of marching into high- income countries.

The ＂Middle Income Trap＂ in Economic Growth in Different Economies

Nowadays, more than 50% of the world population live in middle-income economies. Economies in the middle-income development stage are confronted with a number of challenges, such as economic restructuring, industrial upgrade and income growth. Therefore, academia around the worm have paid much attention to theoretical and empirical researches of the ＂middle income trap＂ and long-term trends of global economic growth. Based on analyses about the long-term growth path of the world economy and the characteristics of different stages of economic development, this paper defines the＂middle income trap＂ and its characteristics and examines, through a large number of cases from different economies, the reasons why ＂growth slowdown＂ arises during the middle-income development stage. These theoretic and empirical researches have reference value and heuristic meaning for China to actively respond to the challenges of the ＂middle income trap＂.

‘Middle-Income Trap’ and ‘High-Income Waft＇： Challenges and Opportunities to China

The history of international industrialization shows that Latin American countries and former Soviet Union and Eastern European countries experienced a siginificant drop in economic growth and fell into the middle-income trap when their per capita GDP reached 4,000-7,000 international dollar （based on the 1990 prices） as a result of long-term implemented import-oriented strategy and planned economic system. Fortunately, China adopted reform and opening-up policy beginning at a lower development phase and achieved sustained high-speed growth for more than thirty years. Currently, China has surpassed the phase which the above-mentioned countries fell into the middle-income trap. On the other side, experiences of successful runner-ups show that when per capita GDP reached II,000 international dollar （based on the 1990 prices）, economic growth speed will present regularly ＂natural drop ＂. Without internal and external shocks, China＇s economy is expected to reach this level by 2015 and the potential growth rate will possibly drop significantly. In this regard, China＇s toughest challenges will be whether it can effectively prevent and solve the financial risks accumulated during high-speed growth and make a shift to innovation-driven growth model Time is pressing for addressing the above challenges. A fundamental change in the growth model depends on the intensification of reform, in particular, the promotion of an ＂participatory and facilitative reform ＂approach.

Causes for Middle Income Trap and Recommendations for China's Leaping Paths

The middle income trap is an objective challenge faced in the development of the economy. There is provision in both the amount and time. It is worth studying why some Latin American countries have fallen into this trap for decades. This paper analyzed the causes for the middle income trap of Latin American economies. On this basis,it came up with recommendations for China's leaping paths,including accelerating the structural reforms on the supply front to promote industrial transformation and upgrading,deepening the reform and increasing the efficiency with institutional innovation as the core,protecting legitimate property rights,reforming the income distribution,combining accurate poverty alleviation,narrowing the gap between the rich and the poor,performing administration according to laws,vigorously developing education,expanding the opening up,and keeping sustainable growth,so as to successfully leap over the middle income trap.

Productivity, Economic Growth and the Middle Income Trap： Implications for China

This paper explores the middle income trap （MIT） concept from the perspective of productivity growth. Through the examination of cross-country historical statistics as well as China＇s regional data, it sheds light on the debate about whether the Chinese economy can avoid the middle income trap. It should be one of the first papers proposing an analytical framework to address this controversial issue. The findings should have important implications for economic policies guiding China＇s development in the coming decades.

The Mechanism of the Middle Income Trap and the Potential Factors Influencing China＇s Economic Growth

Data from WDI show that developing countries are easily caught in the ＂middle income trap.＂ To interpret the mechanism of the ＂middle income trap,＂ this paper focuses on： （1） Based on the empirical framework of economic growth, we perform an empirical research on the determinants of economic growth at different income levels and discover that fixed capital investment, FDI and human capital accumulation are the main factors influencing less developed economies while for the upper middle income level and high-income level countries, the engines of economic growth change to institutions and R＆D. （2） We discuss the possible reasons why developing countries can have rapid economic growth before reaching the middleineome level, but cannot transform growth mechanisms in the middle income level. （3） We classify the factors that have influenced China＇s economic growth since the reform and analyze the potential ones for China＇s future development.

中国社会医疗保险制度未来发展的挑战与创新建议

中国社会医疗保险制度发展至今,已覆盖了95%以上的人口,筹资和报销待遇都达到了与国民经济所处的中等收入国家地位相称的水平,但也存在不同人群待遇相差悬殊、医保基金使用效率不高的问题。未来需要从实现公平的国民待遇、进行科学的医保筹资规划、制定统一的医疗服务价格、设计合理的医保报销政策、明确划分中央与地方政府的职责等方面,正视挑战,创新发展,避免医保制度发展的中等收入陷阱。

中等收入陷阱研究新进展

中等收入陷阱问题自提出以来受到广泛而持续关注,但现有文献缺乏对中等收入陷阱最新进展的述评。文章从增长、发展和国际环境多个视角回顾、总结和评述了中等收入陷阱概念的提出及其内涵外延扩展,给出了中等收入陷阱新的定义,并针对既有研究关于中等收入陷阱存在性的争议,进行了新的回答。在此基础上,基于新古典及内生增长理论、刘易斯拐点、库兹涅茨假说、传统比较优势理论、产品空间和比较优势演化理论以及中心外围理论,系统审视了不同影响因素及其内在作用机制何以及如何导致陷阱的发生,又提出了怎样的跨越路径,并据此指出了目前研究的不足之处和未来研究展望。本研究将增进对发展中国家面临的中等收入陷阱挑战的认识、科学构建中等收入陷阱的理论体系,对包括中国在内的发展中国家实现高质量可持续发展从而真正跨越中等收入陷阱具有重要的理论和现实意义。

数字技术对服务业生产率的影响——基于规模经济重塑与结构现代化转型的中介效应研究

数字技术为化解服务业“成本病”问题提供新契机。鉴于现有研究未能从规模经济效应和结构现代化效应剖析数字技术对服务业生产率的影响机制,因此使用联合国贸易和发展会议(UNCTAD)提供的信息和通信技术(ICT)指数表示数字技术发展水平,以服务贸易水平刻画规模经济、中高技术服务业出口额占服务出口总额的比重表示服务业的结构现代化程度,基于世界银行数据库中2009—2021年176个经济体的跨国面板数据,利用固定效应模型和中介效应模型研究数字技术对服务业生产率的影响及作用机制,并对高收入经济体和中低收入经济体进行差异实证分析。结果发现:数字技术能够显著提升服务业生产率,规模经济重塑效应和结构现代化转型效应在其中起中介效应;数字技术显著提升高收入经济体的服务业生产率,而对中低收入经济体的影响不显著,可能是因为中低收入经济体并未充分发展数字技术,其数字技术的发展规模和程度未能有效作用于其服务业。为此,应着力发展数字技术,发挥数字技术规模经济效应与结构现代化效应,促进数字技术与服务业的多场景融合,强化数字技术对服务业的渗透性。

How Can China Avoid the Middle Income Trap？

Many middle income economies have been unable to advance to become high income economies over a period of 50 years or longer, not due to the existence of middle income traps, but because of the overly broad income range in the definition of middle income economies. The middle income trap is, in essence, a growth trap, and refers to the situation in which a middle income economy experiences growth stagnation or a growth rate that is lower than that of high income economies. Nonetheless, it is hard to fuUy comprehend the formation of the trap solely based on growth theories. Historical data indicate that the middle income economies do not lack growth potential, and the real problem is that although their long-term average growth rates are higher than those of the high income economies, their average growth rates over a business cycle or an even longer period of time often fall below those of the high income economies. The cause of this phenomenon is neither short- fluctuations nor long-term growth potential, but the.frequent occurrence of financial crises in middle income economies. As a middle income economy, China is also facing the risk of a financial crisis, and the key to avoiding the middle income trap is to guard against future financial crises, preventing unsound financial liberalization and mismanagement of the corporate debt ratio.

Is There a "Middle-income Trap"? Theories,Experiences and Relevance to China

Through review of relevant studies and analysis, this article indicates that the ＂middleincome trap ＂ is in line with the framework of the mainstream economic growth theories, and, therefore, it is a useful concept through which we can analyze economic growth phenomena in specific economic growth phases. The empirical experiences of many countries also indicate that at specific middle-income stages, economies with high rates of growth tend to encounter economic slowdown or even stagnation. The article shows that China is facing the challenge of determining how to move smoothly beyond the middle-income stage of economic development, while taking into account the shifting population structure, changing resource endowment and growth patterns. The article, drawing on international experiences, puts forward several policy suggestions relating to improvement in total factor productivity, expansion of human capital accumulation and deepening of system and governmentfunction reforms.

Possibility of a Middle Income Trap in China： Assessment in Terms of the Literature on Innovation, Big Business and Inequality

This paper discusses the possibility of China falling into the so-called middle income trap in terms of three checkpoints： innovation capability, world-class big businesses, and inequality. Based on these criteria, our conclusions are as follows： First, China has increasingly become innovative and thus differs from other middle income countries. Second, China has many successful big businesses, a number disproportionate to its size. Thus, China differs from other middle income countries with few world-class big businesses, and the only qualification is that those big businesses are mostly non- manufacturing firms focused on such areas as finance, energy, and trading. Third, China faces great uncertainty in terms of inequality. Although several signs show that the Kuznets curve will come to represent China, as noted by the gradual reduction of surplus labor and rising wage rates starting in the coastal provinces, the Chinese are now facing new sources of inequality in China, such as wealth （including financial and real estate assets） and non-economic factors （including corruption）.

The Hukou and Land Tenure Systems as Two Middle Income Traps--The Case of Modern China

China＇s prevailing hukou （household registration） system and land tenure system seem to be very different in their applications. In fact, they both function to deny the exit right of rural residents from a rural community. Under these systems, rural residents are not allowed to freely exit from collectives if they do not want to lose their entitlements, such as their rights to using collectively owned land and their land-based properties. Farmers are neither allowed to sell their houses to outsiders, nor allowed to sell to outsiders their rights to contracting a piece of land from the collective where their households are registered. For migrant workers from rural areas, it is extremely difficult for them to obtain an urban hukou with all its associated entitlements at an urban locality where they currently work and live. The combined effect of the two systems leads to serious distortions in labor and land markets, resulting in discrimination against migrant workers, sprawling yet exclusive urbanization, housing bubbles, and depressed domestic demand. These distortions further entrench the existing and much widened urban/rural divide. Unless these two systems are thoroughly reformed, the rural residents in Chinese mainland will be trapped in their comparatively much lower income and remain unable to share the gains from the agglomeration effects of urbanization.

Will Inequality Lead China to the Middle Income Trap？

China has departed from the East Asian development model by letting inequality rise to a high level, which is now contributing to China＇s current problems of macroeconomic imbalance, declining efficiency of capital, and rising social tensions. If inequality persists, China may get caught in the ＂inequality-trap,＂ which may then lead to the middle income trap （MIT）. Fortunately, China still has the levers to pull to reduce inequality and avoid the MIT. Measures along both the ＂wage route＂ and the ＂redistributive route＂ can be adopted for this purpose. In addition, China may pursue the ＂cooperative route＂ to more equitable distribution.

Supply-Side Structural Reform in the Service Industry and Escaping the Middle Income Trap

The internal consumption and production structure of the service industry that now dominates the Chinese economy needs to be optimized.Introducing supply-side structural reform to improve the in-depth integration of advanced manufacturing and the modern service industry and promoting a strong domestic market is the key to escaping the middle income trap.We use 1950-2010 data from 45 non-oil-exporting economies representing the structural evolution of the service industry worldwide to compare Asian economies that have passed through the middle income trap with Latin American counterparts that remain stuck in the trap,and thence proceed to construct a matched model that covers the consumption and production service industries and their supply of human capital,with the aim of identifying the formative mechanisms and conditions for escaping the middle income trap through upgrading the structure of the service industry.Substantially developing the production service sector,raising the supply of public services so as to cultivate the quantity and quality of human capital,and matching senior-level human capital with knowledge-intensive serviceindustries will propel the upgrading and transformation of China’s economic structure toward high-quality development.

从企业集团治理转向公司治理——以跨越“中等收入陷阱”为视阈

在双增长引擎理论框架之下,第一增长引擎强调公司网络的正外部性,第二增长引擎则致力于技术进步的正外部性。从“第一增长引擎单向运转”到“双增长引擎共同作用”是实现经济水平跃迁的有效路径。企业集团与公司网络的形成相生相伴,其正外部性促使经济体完成了低收入水平到中等收入水平的迭代。然而,企业集团难以引发破坏性创新。部分高等收入经济体通过完成从企业集团治理到公司治理的转向,才实现了技术进步率的提高。鉴于政党政治理性推动制度变迁、公司层面治理可以增进社会福利,此种转向得以通过跨越中等收入陷阱而对我国经济增长作出贡献。

制造业何以不振:激励机制视角下菲律宾的去工业化

制造业的规模扩张与技术升级进程出现停滞甚至逆转,是当代后发国家面临的重要挑战。现有文献主要解读不同国家间出现去工业化的共性原因,尚未系统解释国别差异。本文提出从国内经济条件出发,同时关注微观层面激励机制的框架,以此对菲律宾的结构转型进程进行分析。研究发现,20世纪末以来的菲律宾结构转型以中低端服务业的扩张为主,抑制了生产率的持续提升与发展成果的共享。而造成这种局面的主要原因是激励结构的扭曲:菲律宾政府并未积极改善境内产业园区的治理水平以吸引国际投资者,反而在金融、地产等领域纵容了较高程度的寡头垄断与寻租行为,从而导致经济资源向非制造业与境外流动。本文的结论对发展理论与政策实践都有所启示。

共享发展中潜在“三大陷阱”的生成逻辑与跨越路径

共享发展是实现全体人民共同富裕背景下推动经济结构升级和缩小区域、城乡发展差距的主要途径。但在推进共享发展的过程中存在可能陷入多重陷阱的风险,如陷入中等收入陷阱、库兹涅茨陷阱和梅佐乔诺陷阱。故应明确这些陷阱的生成逻辑及陷入陷阱的风险挑战,在此基础上探寻跨越这些陷阱的路径。研究发现,要聚焦靶向布局以保证渐进共享,跨越中等收入陷阱;贯彻全面深化改革以保障全民共享,规避库兹涅茨陷阱;加强科学决策,实现全域共享,防范梅佐乔诺陷阱。

The Nature and Avoidance of the ＂Middle Income Trap＂

The ＂middle income trap＂ is a significant theoretical and practical issue closely related to the economic and social transition and sustainable development of a country. This paper explores the essence of the ＂middle income trap＂ and ways to avoid it. It reveals that the inner nature of the ＂middle income trap＂ lies in the institutional transition dilemma, which results essentially from a lack of reasonable and clear definitions of governance boundaries between government and market as well as government and society. This lack of boundaries causes coexistent and interrelated government inefficiency, market distortion/failure and social anomie, leading to a stagnant transition from a factor-driven to an efficiency-driven and further innovation-driven economy. Moreover, this paper proposes that the proper way to avoid the ＂trap＂ can be found in the reconstruction of the state governance mode, that is, to transition from a development-oriented and omnipotent government to a public service-oriented and limited government, from factor-driven to efficiency-driven and further innovation-driven development, and from a traditional society to a modem civil society through defining reasonable and clear boundaries between government and market as well as government and society. Thus, reconstruction can establish a state public governance mode featuring the interactive role of government, market and society, and achieve the modernization of state governance systems and capacity.

Supply-Side Reform Helps Escape Middle-Income Trap

China’s economic growth has now changed from high to medium-high speed,which has aroused arguments on whether the Chinese economy will experience a hard landing and fall into the middle-income trap.Answers to these questions must factor-in long-term growth frameworks as well as international conditions.