Neighborhood Effects and Political Trust: A Multi-level Analysis of Chinese Rural-to-Urban Migrants’ Trust in County Government

Massive rural-to-urban migration in China is consequential for political trust: rural-to-urban migrants have been found to hold lower levels of trust in local government than their rural peers who choose to stay in the countryside (mean 4.92 and 6.34 out of 10, respectively, p < 0.001). This article explores why migrants have a certain level of political trust in their county-level government. Using data of rural-to-urban migrants from the China Family Panel Survey, this study performs a hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) to unpack the multi-level explanatory factors of rural-to-urban migrants’ political trust. Findings show that the individual-level socio-economic characteristics and perceptions of government performance (Level-1), the neighborhood-level characteristics-the physical and social status and environment of neighborhoods (Level-2), and the objective macroeconomic performance of county-level government (Level-3), work together to explain migrants’ trust levels. These results suggest that considering the effects of neighborhood-level factors on rural-to-urban migrants’ political trust merits policy and public management attention in rapidly urbanizing countries.

What Drives Migrants Back to Set up Firms?Return-home Entrepreneurial Intention of Rural Migrant Workers in China

The extant literature on international immigrants has discussed migrants’entrepreneurial activities in the context of Western countries but has paid little attention to return-home entrepreneurial intention(RHEI).Rural migrant workers(RMWs)in China,who used to promote rural development by remittances and were characterized by similarities with early international migrants,have gradually returned to their hometowns to initiate entrepreneurial activities.Based on the structured questionnaire conducted in 2015 and 2020in Anhui Province,China,this article combines the concept of mixed embeddedness with the idea of double-layered embeddedness and analyzes the impacts of the social,economic and institutional context in RMWs’hometowns and migration destinations on RMWs’RHEI by using binary logistic regression.The article shows that the social,economic,and institutional environments of RMWs’hometowns and migration destinations have effects on their RHEI.The embeddedness in the economic and informal institutional context in RMWs’RHEI is even more important than personal characteristics.Compared with migration destinations,RMWs’hometowns exert a more influential effect on their RHEI.However,that does not mean that the role of migration destinations can be undervalued.Actually,the better the social,economic,and institutional environments of migration destinations RMWs moved into is,the higher entrepreneurial intention they will have after returning to their hometowns.The article proposes a modified framework in combination of mixed embeddedness with double-layer embeddedness and proves that it is suitable for analyzing RMWs’RHEI.The framework has important implications for strengthening China’s RMWs to return home to start their own businesses.

Post-independence Eritrean Migrants Transiting Through/Living in Sudan:Driven by Politics or Economics

Irregular cross-/trans-national mobility has increasingly become one of the most talked about subjects in the public domain so much in the press,among academics,policy-makers,and parliamentarians.The level of irregular out-migration of people from Eritrea to neighboring and far off countries has drastically risen and remains unabated since the eruption of the second Ethio-Eritrean war(1998-2000).With an estimated 400 to 5,000 Eritreans reportedly fleeing either to Sudan or Ethiopia,Eritrea has been dubbed as the“fastest emptying country”.Using methodological triangulation and cross-national field work conducted both in Sudan and Eritrea,this article unravels the principal factors behind the country’s disproportionate youth emigration arte.It aims to illuminate whether post-2000 Eritrea’s massive irregular youth“exodus”reflects its political or economic woes.It also tangentially touches on whether any rigorous analysis about such“phenomenal”irregular youth efflux from a country who prides itself of considering its biggest asset as nothing,but its human resources should heed to regional and international politico-economic factors into the equation under scrutiny.The center of such inquiry lies debunking the tautology of the simpleton of narratives advanced,on the one hand,by migrant“exporting”government authorities and by rights groups and most researchers,on the other hand.The paper ultimately discusses the politically sensitive nature of labelling contemporary Eritrean migrants:Are they all refugees,economic migrants,or something else?

Regular Observation of De-Acclimatization and Randomized Controlled Research of Diagnostic Criteria of High Altitude De-Acclimatization Syndrome among Different Plateau Migrants Crowd after Their Return to the Plain

Objective: The objective of this study was to investigate the diagnostic methods of high altitude de-acclimatization syndrome and to formulate diagnostic criteria. Methods: This study was conducted using epidemiological surveys and a multi-center randomized controlled clinical trial. A total of 3011 subjects were studied, and the following indices were collected after their return to low altitude areas from the plateau: general health status, blood, urine and stool samples, myo-cardial enzyme levels, liver and kidney function, nerve function, sex hormone levels, microalbuminuria, electrocardiogram (ECG), echocardiography, pulmonary function, and hemorheological markers. These data were compared to those of randomized healthy subjects in the same age range who lived at the same altitude to determine the characteristics of high altitude de-acclimatization syndrome. Based on these characteristics, diagnostic criteria for high altitude de-acclimatization syndrome were formulated. Results: This study demonstrated that the incidence of high altitude de-acclimatization syndrome was 84.36%. Sixty percent of the cases were mild, 30% were medium, and 10% were severe. The incidence was higher among those who returned to a place of lower altitude, resided at a high altitude for a longer period of time, or engaged in heavy labor while at high altitude. Patients with high altitude de-acclimatization syndrome manifested hematological abnormalities and abnormal ventricular function, notably a right ventricular diastolic function, which recovered to baseline function after one to five years. Exposure to long-term hypoxia often caused obvious changes in cardiac morphology, i.e., left and right ventricular hypertrophy, particularly within the right ventricle. In addition, patients with high altitude de-acclimatization syndrome often presented with low blood pressure, low pulse pressure, and microalbuminuria. A few patients presented with occult blood in their feces. The diagnosis of high altitude de-acclimatization syndrome can be made if a patient who recently returns to the plain from the plateau complains of dizziness, weakness, sleepiness, chest tightness, edema, memory loss, and other symptoms and signs that do not alleviate under short-term rehabilitation or symptomatic treatment, and if organic diseases of the heart, lung, kidney, and other organs have been excluded. Conclusion: The diagnosis of high altitude de-acclimatization syndrome should be made after a comprehensive analysis of the patient’s clinical symptoms and signs.

Limited Focus on the Use of Health Care by Elderly Migrants——A Literature Review

Our premise for this literature review is the global demographic change caused by the world’s population living longer and becoming older, and extensive international migration leading to multicultural societies. Increasing age leads to health problems, often long-term or chronic, requiring investments in health care. Worse health and dissimilarities in pattern of morbidity/ mortality have been found in foreign-compared to Swedish-born persons, so it is reasonable to assume that this affects use of health care. The exploratory review focuses on elderly migrants’ (>65 years) use of healthcare. The databases Pub Med, EBSCO, CINAHL and ERIC were searched in 2000-2013. A limited number of studies were found;few had a comparative approach, most were from the USA, and focused on migrants from the former Soviet Union or countries in South-East Asia. A range of factors were identified that influence patterns of health care use: language fluency, ability to communicate, self-reported health status, prevalence of chronic disease, physical distance from care provision, availability of transport to reach care, cost of care, the health insurance system, cultural norms and values regarding different forms of care, level of education, and length of residence in the host country. Most studies treated health care from a general perspective and collected data from community and hospital settings, without analysing usage separately. Some studies indicated elderly migrants making use of health care less than other groups but the pattern is not unambiguous: other studies show that there is an overuse of health care. It is therefore difficult to show any particular pattern, or possible differences in use, regarding community versus in-patient care. Studies focusing on migrants’ actual use of health care are few and further research is needed, especially because elderly people form the largest group of users of health care and will be even larger in the future.

Diabetes in migrants and ethnic minorities in a changingWorld

On a worldwide scale, the total number of migrants exceeds 200 million and is not expected to reduce, fuelled by the economic crisis, terrorism and wars, generating increasing clinical and administrative problems to National Health Systems. Chronic non-communicable diseases(NCD), and specifically diabetes, are on the front-line, due to the high number of cases at risk, duration and cost of diseases, and availability of effective measures of prevention and treatment. We reviewed the documents of International Agencies on migration and performed a Pub Med search of existing literature, focusing on the differences in the prevalence of diabetes between migrants and native people, the prevalence of NCD in migrants vs rates in the countries of origin, diabetes convergence, risk of diabetes progression and standard of care in migrants. Even in universalistic healthcare systems, differences in socioeconomic status and barriers generated by the present culture of biomedicine make high-risk ethnic minorities under-treated and not protected against inequalities. Underutilization of drugs and primary care services in specific ethnic groups are far from being money-saving, and might produce higher hospitalization rates due to disease progression and complications. Efforts should be made to favor screening and treatment programs, to adapt education programs to specific cultures, and to develop community partnerships.

Diagnostic criteria of high altitude de-acclimatization syndrome among plateau migrants after their return to the plain: a multi-center randomized controlled trial

Objective: The objective of this study was to investigate the diagnostic methods of high altitude de-acclimatization syndrome and to formulate diagnostic criteria.Methods: This study was conducted using epidemiological surveys and a multi-center randomized controlled clinical trial. A total of 3,011 subjects were studied, and the following indices were collected after their return to low altitude areas from the plateau: general health status, blood, urine and stool samples, myocardial enzyme levels, liver and kidney function, nerve function, sex hormone levels, microalbuminuria, electrocardiogram(ECG), echocardiography, pulmonary function, and hemorheological markers. These data were compared to those of randomized healthy subjects in the same age range who lived at the same altitude to determine the characteristics of high altitude deacclimatization syndrome. Based on these characteristics, diagnostic criteria for high altitude de-acclimatization syndrome were formulated.Results: This study demonstrated that the incidence of high altitude de-acclimatization syndrome was 84.36%. Sixty percent of the cases were mild, 30% were medium, and 10% were severe. The incidence was higher among those who returned to a place of lower altitude, resided at a high altitude for a longer period of time, or engaged in heavy labor while at high altitude. Patients with high altitude de-acclimatization syndrome manifested hematological abnormalities and abnormal ventricular function, notably a right ventricular diastolic function, which recovered to baseline function after one to five years. Exposure to long-term hypoxia often caused obvious changes in cardiac morphology, i.e., left and right ventricular hypertrophy, particularly within the right ventricle. In addition, patients with high altitude de-acclimatization syndrome often presented with low blood pressure, low pulse pressure, and microalbuminuria. A few patients presented with occult blood in their feces. The diagnosis of high altitude deacclimatization syndrome can be made if a patient who recently returns to the plain from the plateau complains of dizziness, weakness, sleepiness, chest tightness, edema, memory loss, and other symptoms and signs that do not alleviate under short-term rehabilitation or symptomatic treatment, and if organic diseases of the heart, lung, kidney, and other organs have been excluded.Conclusion: The diagnosis of high altitude de-acclimatization syndrome should be made after a comprehensive analysis of the patient's clinical symptoms and signs.

Assessment of Rural Migrants’ Resettlement in the Three Gorges Reservoir Area

In order to assess the rural migrants' resettlement in the Three Gorges Reservoir Area and provide a reference for formulating the later migrant support policies, we select 342 rural migrants from County A in Hubei Province and County B in Chongqing Municipality for the household survey. The survey results show that after removal, housing, and infrastructure (electricity, transportation, communication, household appliances) concerning the migrants are improved substantially, but there are still some problems in water drinking, land, employment and income restoration. The later support should put great emphasis on the following aspects: including the rural migrants into the social security system; improving drinking water and irrigation facilities; promoting industrial restructuring; strengthening skills training and education for the migrants, to gradually enrich the migrants and make them live a comfortable life.

Study on Perception of Potential Condom Use among Unmarried Migrants

Objective To understand the perception of potential condom use and its influencing factors so as to promote condom use among unmarried migrantsMethod A survey, using self-administered structured anonymous questionnaire, was conducted among 1 092 unmarried migrants aged 15～24 years old in urban area of Shanghai. Results The unmarried migrants had some knowledge of condom. However, their knowledge level and their attitude towards condom use were not so optimistic. Subjects' knowledge of contraceptives and STD/AIDS had a positive influence on their attitude toward condom use. Subjects with positive attitude to condom use were more likely to use condom in sexual activity (OR=1.61). Conclusion Unmarried migrants have lower rate of condom use if they have insufficient knowledge of condom. Therefore, it is essential to strengthen the sexual health education among unmarried sex-active migrants in order to encourage contraceptive use, especially condom use.

Return of Rural Migrants in Southwest China:An Empirical Study Based on 2010 Copies of Questionnaires

[Objectives]To analyze and study the reasons for the return of rural migrants in southwest China,so as to come up with effective policy recommendations.[Methods]Based on the questionnaire survey on the return of rural population in Chongqing,Sichuan,Guizhou,and Yunnan,the characteristics and reasons of the return of rural migrants were analyzed.[Results]It was found that the return of rural population in the southwest China was dominated by middle-aged and young people with higher education level,and mainly from Guangdong,Zhejiang,Shanghai,etc.,the time of staying outside gradually declined,and after the return,they were more willing to go outside rural areas to continue to engage in the same or similar work,and they showed stronger willingness to flow again.[Conclusions]The reasons for the return of rural migrants are diversified,mainly affected by limited welfare of medical care,education,and housing resulted from high housing price in employment places,household registration limitation,as well as the need of caring the elderly in the hometown,and returning to start an undertaking.In line with the reasons for return of rural migrants in southwest China,it came up with some effective policy recommendations.

HIV/AIDS Related Stigma among Male Labor Migrants in Nepal

Labor migrants are those of the at-risk groups for HIV. This cross-sectional study has tried to examine HIV/AIDS-related stigma among Nepalese returnee male labor migrants. Migrant workers who have worked at least six months abroad were asked different questions related to sexual behavior, knowledge on HIV/AIDS & condom and HIV/AIDS-related stigma. Stigma was measured on a three-point rating scale as high, average and low stigma. About 58% of migrants had the view “I would rather not know if I have HIV” followed by “I don’t want to be friends with people living with HIV” (53.6% migrants) and “people with HIV are cursed” (35.5% migrants). High stigma was present among 15.5% of the total respondents with high proportion among those with higher age, lower education, rural residence, and no knowledge on Voluntary Counseling and Testing (VCT) service. About a quarter of respondents were of the view that migrants infected with HIV while abroad should not be allowed to return Nepal. Some level of stigma on HIV/AIDS exists among male labor migrants in Nepal. Interventions aiming at reducing stigma should consider the factors like migrants’ age, education, place of residence and knowledge on VCT services.

Young Women Migrants in Beijing：Major data from a survey on the migrant population

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What Influences The Family Migration Decision of China’s New Generation Rural-urban Migrants? A Multilevel Logistic Regression Analysis

The massive scale of new-generation rural-urban migrants in China has attracted extensive scholarly attention in recent years.While previous studies on China’s rural migrant workers focus on migrants’settlement intentions,migrants’family migration decision-making and the intergenerational differences between the old-generation migrants and new-generation migrants are underexplored.Based on the data of the 2017 China Migrants Dynamic Survey,this paper adopts a multilevel logistic regression approach to explore family and destination factors influencing the family migration decisions of China’s new generation of rural migrant workers.The empirical results reveal that both the migrants’family and destination attributes significantly influence their family migration decision.The demographic and socioeconomic characteristics of the family have been pivotal factors underlying the family migration decision of China’s new generation rural-urban migrants,while 16.9%of the chances are explained by between-destination differences.Self-employed migrants with housing properties in host cities,long migration duration and high-income levels are more likely to migrate with their family members.Yet,the possibility of family migration is found to be significantly and negatively correlated with the age,education level,number of children and inter-provincial mobility of the new generation of migrant workers.In addition,new-generation rural-urban migrants’family migration is more likely to be found in cities with service-oriented industry structures,better environmental quality,and higher hukou barriers which is possibly related to more job opportunities.These research findings not only complement the existing literature on China’s new generation of rural urban migrants,but also have important policy implications for reforming the hukou system and enhancing social integration of the rural-to-urban migrant population.

Rental Location Choice Characteristics and Tendencies of Migrants in Guangzhou,China

The inner-urban residential location choice is a topic of continuing interest in urban geography.However,not much research has been done on migrants’rental location choices.Based on data from a questionnaire completed by 276 migrant renters in Guangzhou,this paper analyzes the demographics and social class characteristics of migrants,and the condition and location of housing preferred by this population.The results show that the migrants in Guangzhou mainly rent in the Center Business District(CBD)area(Tianhe District)and Huangpu,Panyu and Haizhu districts.The main reason for this choice of location choices is the houses’convenience to their workplaces.A second reason is that nearby subways make travel convenient,for consumption and daily life,for children to go to school,and for access to large shopping centers/malls.

How does Street Vending Economy Help Rural to Urban Migrants Integrate into Cities?

Street vending is a form of informal economy.The main participants of street vending economy consist of exploited workers,rural-urban migrants who are in low level of socioeconomic households,common workers,and some individual households.Most of the studies and articles have explored how to regulate the street vending economy and how to facilitate the relationship between vendors and city authorities,but the important constitute of street vending economies,rural migrants,has received little attention from scholars and there is little research about it.What role does street vending economy play in the lives of this segment of this population which itself faces a number of challenges in migrating and integrating into the city?We have found out that street vending functions as a platform which helps these people to better integrate into the cities.Through desktop research and case studies,this paper explores how street vending economy helps rural to urban migrants integrate into the city from four perspectives:identity integration,integrating in economic level,integrating in social level,and females'empowerment.

Unions Extend Help to Migrants

Head waiter Liu Hui used to think he would never become a labourer like his neighbour, until recently when the medium-sizedrestaurant in Beijing where Liu works established a union branch and began signing labour contracts with its employees.When he was a school boy in the early 1980s, Liu dreamed of becoming a labourer once he’d grown up.

“New-style” Urban Plans to Protect Rights of Migrants

The State Council, or China＇s cabinet, has called for a middle to long-term plan to pro- mote new-style urbanization, enabling more migrant workers and their families to settle in cities.

Risk of overweight and obesity among migrants in Switzerland

We assessed the risk of overweight and obesity for six large migrant groups in Switzerland. We used population-based survey data form the Swiss Migrant Health Survey 2010 and the Swiss Health Survey 2007. The sample comprised permanent residents aged 17 - 64 years (n = 14,637). Multivariate logistic regressions have been used to estimate odds ratios (OR). Compared with Swiss nationals, the odds of being obese were 1.97 times higher for Turkish nationals (CI-95 1.26, 3.07), 1.73 times higher for Kosovan nationals (CI-95 1.09, 2.74) and 3.42 times higher for Serbs (CI-95 2.28, 5.12). The chance of being obese was not statistically different between Swiss nationals and those from Portugal, Italy, and Germany. The chance of being overweight or obese (BMI ≥ 25) was higher for migrants than for Swiss nationals. The respective odds were 1.54 times higher for nationals from Portugal (CI-95 1.13, 2.11), 2.05 times higher for those from Turkey (CI-95 1.50, 2.78), 2.67 times higher for those from Serbia (CI-95 1.93, 3.68), 2.68 times higher for those from Kosovo (CI-95 2.01, 3.56), and 2.16 times higher for nationals from Italy (CI-95 1.54, 3.02). We suggest that preventive initiatives should take into account the specific needs of migrants as well as the needs of persons with low education from all nationalities.

Body Mass Index and Hypertension Hemodynamic Subtypes in Yi Farmers and Migrants

Objective To examine the relationship between overweight or obesity and the risk of the various hypertension hemodynamic subtypes in Yi farmers and migrants. Methods A cross-sectional study of 2 358 Yi farmers and 2 392 Yi migrants was carried out in the Liangshan Yi autonomous prefecture, Sichuan, China in 2007. Results The standardized prevalence of overweight in female Yi farmers （6.22%） was higher than in males （3.25%）, whereas in Yi migrants 32.56% of males and 28.78% of females were overweight. The standardized prevalence of obesity was 0 and 0.62% in male and female Yi farmers, compared to 3.91% and 5.57% in male and female Yi migrants, respectively. For both genders the standardized prevalence of ISH, IDH, and SDH was higher in Yi migrants than Yi farmers. Overweight and obese Yi men and women had a higher risk for IDH and SDH （P〈O.002） than non-overweight/obese individuals. However, an association of overweight or obesity with ISH was observed only in men. Conclusion Yi migrants have substantially higher proportion of overweight and obese individuals, as well as individuals affected by ISH, IDH, and SDH, than do Yi farmers. Overweight and obesity are significant risk factors for the development of hypertension in Yi people.

Reproductive Health Service Utilization and Social Determinants among Married Female Rural-to-urban Migrants in Two Metropolises,China

Reproductive health（RH） education and services of female migrants in China have become an important health issue.This research aimed to investigate the RH knowledge and utilization among married female migrants,and to explore the influencing factors from the perspectives of population and sociology.We conducted a cross-section survey in Shenzhen and Wuhan,China,using the purposive sampling method.A total of 1021 rural-to-urban married migrants were recruited,with 997 valid survey results obtained.A face-to-face structured questionnaire survey was used,with primary focus on knowledge of fertility,contraception,family planning policy and sexual transmitted diseases/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome（STD/AIDs）,and RH service utilization.The results showed that the RH service utilization（38.0%） was at a low level in married migrants and the accessibility of RH service was poor.Females who migrated to（OR=0.32） Wuhan obtained fewer RH consultations than those in Shenzhen.The workers with high school education received additional RH consultations and checkup services than those with other background education,apart from the white collar workers who received extra RH consultations and checkup services than the blue collar workers（P〈0.05）.We can draw a conclusion that the utilization of RH services in married female migrants remains at a low level in China.RH service utilization can be improved via the relevant health departments by enhancing the responsibility of maternal and health care in the community health service center.