Possible Impacts of the Arctic Oscillation on the Interdecadal Variation of Summer Monsoon Rainfall in East Asia

The influences of the wintertime AO (Arctic Oscillation) on the interdecadal variation of summer monsoon rainfall in East Asia were examined. An interdecadal abrupt change was found by the end of the 1970s in the variation of the AO index and the leading principal component time series of the summer rainfall in East Asia. The rainfall anomaly changed from below normal to above normal in central China, the southern part of northeastern China and the Korean peninsula around 1978. However, the opposite interdecadal variation was found in the rainfall anomaly in North China and South China. The interdecadal variation of summer rainfall is associated with the weakening of the East Asia summer monsoon circulation. It is indicated that the interdecadal variation of the AO exerts an influence on the weakening of the monsoon circulation. The recent trend in the AO toward its high-index polarity during the past two decades plays important roles in the land-sea contrast anomalies and wintertime precipitation anomaly. The mid- and high-latitude regions of the Asian continent are warming, while the low-latitude regions are cooling in winter and spring along with the AO entering its high-index polarity after the late 1970s. In the meantime, the precipitation over the Tibetan Plateau and South China is excessive, implying an increase of soil moisture. The cooling tendency of the land in the southern part of Asia will persist until summer because of the memory of soil moisture. So the warming of the Asian continent is relatively slow in summer. Moreover, the Indian Ocean and Pacific Ocean, which are located southward and eastward of the Asian land, are warming from winter to summer. This suggests that the contrast between the land and sea is decreased in summer. The interdecadal decrease of the land-sea heat contrast finally leads to the weakening of the East Asia summer monsoon circulation.

Interannual and Decadal Variations of Snow Cover overQinghai-Xizang Plateau and Their Relationships to Summer Monsoon Rainfall in China

Interannual and decadal variations of winter snow cover over the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau (QXP) are analyzed by using monthly mean snow depth data set of 60 stations over QXP for the period of 1958 through 1992. It is found that the winter snow cover over QXP bears a pronounced quasi-biennial oscillation, and it underwent an obvious decadal transition from a poor snow cover period to a rich snow cover period in the late 1970’s during the last 40 years. It is shown that the summer rainfall in the eastern China is closely associated with the winter snow cov-er over QXP not only in the interannual variation but also in the decadal variation. A clear relationship ex-ists in the quasi-biennial oscillation between the summer rainfall in the northern part of North China and the southern China and the winter snow cover over QXP. Furthermore, the summer rainfall in the four cli-mate divisions of Qinling-Daba Mountains, the Yangtze-Huaihe River Plain, the upper and lower reaches of the Yangtze River showed a remarkable transition from drought period to rainy period in the end of 1970’s, in good correspondence with the decadal transition of the winter snow cover over QXP. Key words Snow cover over Qinghai-Xizang Plateau - Summer monsoon rainfall in China - Interannual and decadal variations This study was supported by the National Key Programme for Developing Basic Sciences (G 1998040900 Part I).

Large Scale Aspects of India-China Summer Monsoon Rainfall

This study investigates the dominant modes of variability in monthly and seasonal rainfall over the India-China region mainly through Empirical Orthogonal Function (EOF) analysis. The EOFs have shown that whereas the rainfall over India varies as one coherent zone, that over China varies in east-west oriented bands. The influence of this banded structure extends well into India.Relationship of rainfall with large scale parameters such as the subtropical ridge over the Indian and the western Pacific regions, Southern Oscillation, the Northern Hemispheric surface air temperature and stratospheric winds have also been investigated. These results show that the rainfall over the area around 40°N, 110°E over China is highly related with rainfall over India. The subtropical ridge over the Indian region is an important predictor over India as well an over the northern China region. '

Variable and Robust East Asian Monsoon Rainfall Response to El Nio over the Past 60 Years(1957–2016)

Severe flooding occurred in southern and northern China during the summer of 2016 when the 2015 super El Nio decayed to a normal condition. However, the mean precipitation during summer（June–July-August） 2016 does not show significant anomalies, suggesting that — over East Asia（EA） — seasonal mean anomalies have limited value in representing hydrological hazards. Scrutinizing season-evolving precipitation anomalies associated with 16 El Nio episodes during 1957–2016 reveals that, over EA, the spatiotemporal patterns among the four categories of El Nio events are quite variable, due to a large range of variability in the intensity and evolution of El Nio events and remarkable subseasonal migration of the rainfall anomalies. The only robust seasonal signal is the dry anomalies over central North China during the El Nio developing summer. Distinguishing strong and weak El Nio impacts is important. Only strong El Nio events can persistently enhance EA subtropical frontal precipitation from the peak season of El Nio to the ensuing summer, by stimulating intense interaction between the anomalous western Pacific anticyclone（WPAC） and underlying dipolar sea surface temperature anomalies in the Indo-Pacific warm pool, thereby maintaining the WPAC and leading to a prolonged El Nio impact on EA. A weak El Nio may also enhance the post-El Nio summer rainfall over EA, but through a different physical process： the WPAC re-emerges as a forced response to the rapid cooling in the eastern Pacific. The results suggest that the skillful prediction of rainfall over continental EA requires the accurate prediction of not only the strength and evolution of El Nio, but also the subseasonal migration of EA rainfall anomalies.

Diurnal Variation of Southwest Monsoon Rainfall at Indian Stations

The paper presents the patterns of rainfall behavior brought out by the diagrams depicting the diurnal variation of SW monsoon rainfall at selected indian stations. The stations in different geographical locations are found to exhibit different patterns of diurnal variation of rainfall. In general, coastal and island stations show enhanced rainfall from midnight to morning hours and below average rainfall during day time. Many inland stations show rainfall maximum towards afternoon/evening hours. Some hill stations show the same behavior as inland stations. However, at the heavy rainfall station of Cherrapunjee, the rainfall behavior is similar to that at the coastal stations. Possible physical mechanisms responsible for the diurnal variation of rainfall at stations under different categories, are briefly discussed. Harmonic analysis of hourly SW monsoon rainfall data of 33 stations show that for 19 stations, the first harmonic accounts for more than 50% of the variance of the rainfall series. These consist of (i) inland stations for which the maximum of the first harmonic is reached between 16 hours IST and midnight, and (n) coastal/island stations for which the maximum is seen between 03 and 07 hours IST. At most of the coastal and island stations, the first harmonic alone accounts for 75% orb more of the variance. For the heavy rainfall station of Cherrapunjee, the first harmonic which attains its maximum at 3.8 hours IST (-4.4 hours LT), is able to account for 96% of the variance of the rainfall series. It is hoped that the information contained in this paper about the pattern of diurnal modulation of monsoon rainfall may serve as background material to monsoon precipitation climatology.

Tropical Stratospheric Circulation and Monsoon Rainfall

Interannual variability of both SW monsoon (June-September) and NE monsoon (October-December) rainfall over subdivisions of Coastal Andhra Pradesh, Rayalaseema and Tamil Nadu have been examined in relation to monthly zonal wind anomaly for 10 hPa, 30 hPa and 50 hPa at Balboa (9°N, 80°W) for the 29 year period (1958-1986). Correlations of zonal wind anomalies to SW monsoon rainfall (r = 0.57, significant at 1% level) is highest with the longer lead time (August of the previous year) at 10 hPa level suggesting some predictive value for Coastal Andhra Pradesh. The probabilities estimated from the contingency table reveal non-occurrence of flood during easterly wind anomalies and near non-occurrence of drought during westerly anomalies for August of the previous year at 10 hPa which provides information for forecasting of performance of SW monsoon over Coastal Andhra Pradesh. However, NE monsoon has a weak relationship with zonal wind anomalies of 10 hPa, 30 hPa and 50 hPa for Coastal Andhra Pradesh, Rayalaseema and Tamil Nadu.Tracks of the SW monsoon storms and depressions in association with the stratospheric wind were also examined to couple with the fluctuations in SW monsoon rainfall. It is noted that easterly / westerly wind at 10 hPa, in some manner, suppresses / enhances monsoon storms and depressions activity affecting their tracks.

Modelling of Indian Monsoon Rainfall Series by Univariate Box-Jenkins Type of Models

The time domain approach, i.e. Autoregressive (AR) processes, of time series analysis is applied to the monsoon rainfall series of India and its two major regions, viz. North-West India and Central India. Since the original time series shows no modelable structure due to the presence of high interannual variability, a 3-point running filter is applied before exploring and fitting appropriate stochastic models. Out of several parsimonious models fitted, AR(3) is found to be most suitable. The usefulness of this fitted model is validted on an independent datum of 18 years and some skill has been noted. These models therefore can be used for low skill higher lead time forecasts of monsoon. Further the forecasts produced through such models can be combined with other forecasts to increase the skill of monsoon forecasts.

Surface Pressure and Summer Monsoon Rainfall over India

The relationship between the all-India summer monsoon rainfall and surface pressure over the Indian region has been examined to obtain a useful predictor for the monsoon rainfall. The data series of all-India monsoon rainfall and the mean pressures of three seasons before and after the monsoon season as well as the winter-to-spring pressure tendency (MAM-DJF) at 100 stations for the period 1951-1980 have been used in the analysis.The all-India monsoon rainfall is negatively correlated with the pressure of the spring (MAM) season preceding the monsoon and winter-to-spring seasonal difference as pressure tendency (MAM-DJF), at almost all the stations in India, and significantly with the pressures over central and northwestern regions. The average mean sea level pressure of six stations (Jodhpur, Ahmedabed, Bombay, Indore, Sagar and Akola) in the Western Central Indian (WCI) region showed highly significant (at 1% level) and consistent CCs of-0.63 for MAM and -0.56 for MAM-DJF for the period 1951 - 1980. Thus, the pre-monsoon seasonal pressure anomalies over WCI could provide a useful parameter for the long-range forecasting scheme of the Indian monsoon rainfall.

Indian summer monsoon rainfall (ISMR) forecasting using time series data: A fuzzy-entropy-neuro based expert system

This study presents a model to forecast the Indian summer monsoon rainfall（ISMR）（June-September）based on monthly and seasonal time scales. The ISMR time series data sets are classified into two parts for modeling purposes, viz.,（1） training data set（1871-1960）, and（2） testing data set（1961-2014）.Statistical analyzes reflect the dynamic nature of the ISMR, which couldn＇t be predicted efficiently by statistical and mathematical based models. Therefore, this study suggests the usage of three techniques,viz., fuzzy set, entropy and artificial neural network（ANN）. Based on these techniques, a novel ISMR time series forecasting model is designed to deal with the dynamic nature of the ISMR. This model is verified and validated with training and testing data sets. Various statistical analyzes and comparison studies demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed model.

A Universal Spectrum for Interannual Variability of Monsoon Rainfall over India

Continuous periodogram analyses of 115 years (1871-1985) summer monsoon rainfall over the Indian region show that the power spectra follow the universal and unique inverse power law form of the statistical normal distribution with the percentage contribution to total variance representing the eddy probability corresponding to the normalized standard deviation equal to [(log L / log T50)-1] where L is the period length in years and T50 the period up to which the cumulative percentage contribution to total variance is equal to 50. The above results are consistent with a recently developed non-deterministic cell dynamical model for atmospheric flows. The implications of the above result for prediction of interannual variability of rainfall is discussed.

Effect of climate change on seasonal monsoon in Asia and its impact on the variability of monsoon rainfall in Southeast Asia

Global warming and climate change is one of the most extensively researched and discussed topical issues affecting the environment.Although there are enough historical evidence to support the theory that climate change is a natural phenomenon,many research scientists are widely in agreement that the increase in temperature in the 20 th century is anthropologically related.The associated effects are the variability of rainfall and cyclonic patterns that are being observed globally.In Southeast Asia the link between global warming and the seasonal atmospheric flow during the monsoon seasons shows varying degree of fuzziness.This study investigates the impact of climate change on the seasonality of monsoon Asia and its effect on the variability of monsoon rainfall in Southeast Asia.The comparison of decadal variation of precipitation and temperature anomalies before the 1970 s found general increases which were mostly varying.But beyond the 1970 s,global precipitation anomalous showed increases that almost corresponded with increases in global temperature anomalies for the same period.There are frequent changes and a shift westward of the Indian summer monsoon.Although precipitation is observed to be 70%below normal levels,in some areas the topography affects the intensity of rainfall.These shifting phenomenon of other monsoon season in the region are impacting on the variability of rainfall and the onset of monsoons in Southeast Asia and is predicted to delay for 15 days the onset of the monsoon in the future.The variability of monsoon rainfall in the SEA region is observed to be decadal and the frequency and intensity of intermittent flooding of some areas during the monsoon season have serious consequences on the human,financial,infrastructure and food security of the region.

Effects of Large-Scale Climatic Oscillations on the Variability of the Indian Summer Monsoon Rainfall

In India,large-scale climatic oscillations have strong influences on the Indian summer monsoon rainfall(ISMR),which plays a crucial role in India’s agricultural production and economic growth.However,there are limited studies in India that explore the influences of decadal and multidecadal oscillations on the ISMR and associated El Niño–Southern Oscillation(ENSO).Therefore,in this study we carried out a comprehensive and detailed investigation to understand the influences of ENSO,Pacific decadal oscillation(PDO),and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation(AMO)on ISMR across different regions in India.The statistical significance of ISMR associated with different phases(positive/warm and negative/cold)of ENSO,PDO,and AMO(individual analysis),and combined ENSO–AMO,and ENSO–PDO(coupled analysis)were analysed by using the nonparametric Wilcoxon Rank Sum(WRS)test.The individual analysis results indicate that in addition to the ENSO teleconnection,AMO and PDO significantly affect the spatial patterns of ISMR.Coupled analysis was performed to understand how the phase shift of PDO and AMO has modulated the rainfall during El Niño and La Niña phases.The results indicate that the La Niña associated with a positive PDO phase caused excessive precipitation of about 21%–150%in the peninsular,west–central,and hilly regions compared to the individual effect of ENSO/PDO/AMO on ISMR;similarly,the west–central,coastal,and northwest regions received 15%–56%of excessive rainfall.Moreover,during the El Niño combined with PDO positive(AMO positive),above-normal precipitation was observed in hilly,northeast,and coastal(hilly,northeast,west–central,and coastal)regions,opposite to the results obtained from the individual ENSO analysis.This study emphasizes the importance of accounting the decadal and multidecadal forcing when examining variations in the ISMR during different phases of ENSO events.

An Extreme Monsoonal Heavy Rainfall Event over Inland South China in June 2022: A Synoptic Causes Analysis

An extreme monsoonal heavy rainfall event lasted for nine days and recurred in the interior of northern south China from June 13 to 21, 2022. Using regional meteorological stations and ERA5 reanalysis data, the causes of this extreme monsoonal rainfall event in south China were analyzed and diagnosed. The results are shown as follows. A dominant South Asian high tended to be stable near the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, providing favorable upper-level dispersion conditions for the occurrence of heavy rainfall in south China. A western Pacific subtropical high dominated the eastern part of the South China Sea, favoring stronger and more northward transport of water vapor to the northern part of south China at lower latitudes than normal. The continuous heavy precipitation event can be divided into two stages. The first stage(June 13-15) was the frontal heavy rainfall caused by cold air(brought by an East Asian trough)from the mid-latitudes that converged with a monsoonal airflow. The heavy rains occurred mostly in the area near a shear in front of the center of a synoptic-system-related low-level jet(SLLJ), and the jet stream and precipitation were strongest in the daytime. The second stage(June 16-21) was the warm-sector heavy rainfall caused by a South China Sea monsoonal low-level jet penetrating inland. The heavy rainfall occurred on the windward slope of the Nanling Mountains and in the northern part of a boundary layer jet(BLJ). The BLJ experienced five nighttime enhancements, corresponding well with the enhancement of the rainfall center, showing significant nighttime heavy rainfall characteristics. Finally, a conceptual diagram of inland-type warm-sector heavy rainfall in south China is summarized.

Summer Asian-Pacific Oscillation and Its Relationship with Atmospheric Circulation and Monsoon Rainfall

Using the ERA-40 data and numerical simulations, this study investigated the teleconnection over the extratropical Asian-Pacific region and its relationship with the Asian monsoon rainfall and the climatological characteristics of tropical cyclones over the western North Pacific, and analyzed impacts of the Tibetan Plateau （TP） heating and Pacific sea surface temperature （SST） on the teleconnection. The Asian-Pacific oscillation （APO） is defined as a zonal seesaw of the tropospheric temperature in the midlatitudes of the Asian-Pacific region. When the troposphere is cooling in the midlatitudes of the Asian continent, it is warming in the midlatitudes of the central and eastern North Pacific; and vice versa. The APO also appears in the stratosphere, but with a reversed phase. Used as an index of the thermal contrast between Asia and the North Pacific, it provides a new way to explore interactions between the Asian and Pacific atmospheric circulations. The APO index exhibits the interannual and interdecadal variability. It shows a downward trend during 1958-2001, indicating a weakening of the thermal contrast, and shows a 5.5-yr oscillation period. The formation of the APO is associated with the zonal vertical circulation caused by a difference in the solar radiative heating between the Asian continent and the North Pacific. The numerical simulations further reveal that the summer TP heating enhances the local tropospheric temperature and upward motion, and then strengthens downward motion and decreases the tropospheric temperature over the central and eastern North Pacific. This leads to the formation of the APO. The Pacific decadal oscillation and El Nino/La Nina over the tropical eastern Pacific do not exert strong influences on the APO. When there is an anomaly in the summer APO, the South Asian high, the westerly jet over Eurasia, the tropical easterly jet over South Asia, and the subtropical high over the North Pacific change significantly, with anomalous Asian monsoon rainfall and tropical cyclone activities over the western North Pacific. The summer cooling along the upper and middle reaches of the Yangtze River in the past 40 more years is related to the APO, which is possibly a regional response to the decadal variability of the global atmospheric circulation. An anomalous signal of the APO may propagate to the Arctic and Antarctic. Moreover, the APO also appears in other seasons.

COMMENTS ON “AN APPARENT RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HIMALAYAN SNOW COVER AND SUMMER MONSOON RAINFALL OVER INDIA”

The snow cover in central High Asia has been the focus of climatologists interests for many decades.Earlier studies indicate that Himalayan snow cover has a significant effect on Indian monsoon rainfall,but it has relied on very limited snow cover data.In this paper,three complete High Asian snow cover data sets are used.They consist of SMMR pentad snow depth maps covering the period 1978—1987,operational NOAA weekly snow cover extent charts during the period between 1966— 1989,and daily snow depth records at 60 primary weather stations over the 36-year period of 1957— 1992.Unpervasive feature,dearth of snow mass in the vast interior,and limited portion affected by substantial interannual variability reveal that the High Asian snow cover itself could not greatly influ- ence the Indian monsoon rainfall.A simple approach of lead/lag relation between High Asian snow cover.Indian monsoon rainfall,and ENSO shows that snow cover is not a key variable influencing the Indian monsoon.Further correlation calculation demonstrated that only a weak signal was found between them.

Monsoon Subdiyisional Rainfall Dimensionality and Predictability

For summer monsoon rainfall purpose India is divided into 35 subdivisions. The daily rainfall series of one such subdivision (Konkan) has been analysed using the phase space approach. Fifteen years (1959-1973) of daily rainfall data have been utilised in this study. The .analysis shows that the variability is due to the existing of strange attractor of dimension about 3.8. The predictability is estimated by computing the Lyapunov characteristic exponent. The computations show that the predictability is about 8 days.

Seasonal and Intraseasonal Variations of East Asian Summer Monsoon Precipitation Simulated by a Regional Air-Sea Coupled Model

The performance of a regional air-sea coupled model, comprising the Regional Integrated Environment Model System （RIEMS） and the Princeton Ocean Model （POM）, in simulating the seasonal and intraseasonal variations of East Asian summer monsoon （EASM） rainfall was investigated. Through comparisons of the model results among the coupled model, the uncoupled RIEMS, and observations, the impact of air-sea coupling on simulating the EASM was also evaluated. Results showed that the regional air sea coupled climate model performed better in simulating the spatial pattern of the precipitation climatology and produced more realistic variations of the EASM rainfall in terms of its amplitude and principal EOF modes. The coupled model also showed greater skill than the uncoupled RIEMS in reproducing the principal features of climatological intraseasonal oscillation （CISO） of EASM rainfall, including its dominant period, intensity, and northward propagation. Further analysis indicated that the improvements in the simulation of the EASM rainfall climatology and its seasonal variation in the coupled model were due to better simulation of the western North Pacific Subtropical High, while the improvements of CISO simulation were owing to the realistic phase relationship between the intraseasonal convection and the underlying SST resulting from the air-sea coupling.

Teleconnections:Summer Monsoon over Korea and India

This study investigates the relationship between the summer monsoon rainfall over Korea and India, by using correlation analysis and Singular Value Decomposition (SVD).Results reveal that summer monsoon rainfall over Korea is negatively (significant at the 99% level) cor-related with the rainfall over the northwest and central parts of India. In addition, coupled spatial modes be-tween the rainfall over Korea and India have been identified by the SVD analysis. The squared covariance fraction explained by the first mode is 70% and the correlation coefficient between the time coefficients of the two fields is significant at the 99% level, indicating that the coupled mode reflects a large part of the interaction between the summer monsoon rainfall over Korea and India. The first mode clearly demon-strates the existence of a significant negative correlation between the rainfall over the northwest and central parts of India and the rainfall over Korea.Possible mechanisms of this correlation are investigated by analyzing the variation of upper-level at-mospheric circulation associated with the Tibetan high using NCEP/NCAR Reanalysis data.

Relationships between Rainy Days,Mean Daily Intensity and Seasonal Rainfall in Normal,Flood and Drought Years over India

here are limitations in using the seasonal rainfall total in studies of Monsoon rainfall climatology. A correlation analysis of the individual station seasonal rainfall with all India seasonal mean rainfall has been made. After taking the significance test (strictly up to 5% level) the stations which are significantly correlated have been considered in this study in normal, flood and drought years respectively. Analysis of seasonal rainfall data of 50 stations spread over a period of 41 years suggests that a linear relationship fits better than the logarithmic relationship when seasonal rainfall versus number of rainy days is studied. The linear relationship is also found to be better in the case of seasonal rainfall versus mean daily intensity.

Spatial Characteristics of Extreme Rainfall over China with Hourly through 24-Hour Accumulation Periods Based on National-Level Hourly Rain Gauge Data

Hourly rainfall measurements of 1919 national-level meteorological stations from 1981 through 2012 are used to document,for the first time,the climatology of extreme rainfall in hourly through 24-h accumulation periods in China. Rainfall amounts for 3-,6-,12- and 24-h periods at each station are constructed through running accumulation from hourly rainfall data that have been screened by proper quality control procedures. For each station and for each accumulation period,the historical maximum is found,and the corresponding 50-year return values are estimated using generalized extreme value theory. Based on the percentiles of the two types of extreme rainfall values among all the stations,standard thresholds separating Grade I,Grade II and Grade III extreme rainfall are established,which roughly correspond to the 70th and 90th percentiles for each of the accumulation periods. The spatial characteristics of the two types of extreme rainfall are then examined for different accumulation periods. The spatial distributions of extreme rainfall in hourly through 6-h periods are more similar than those of 12- and 24-h periods. Grade III rainfall is mostly found over South China,the western Sichuan Basin,along the southern and eastern coastlines,and in the large river basins and plains. There are similar numbers of stations with Grade III extreme hourly rainfall north and south of 30°N,but the percentage increases to about 70% south of 30°N as the accumulation period increases to 24 hours,reflecting richer moisture and more prolonged rain events in southern China. Potential applications of the extreme rainfall climatology and classification standards are suggested at the end.