Evaluation of SWAT Model performance on glaciated and non-glaciated subbasins of Nam Co Lake, Southern Tibetan Plateau, China

This paper presents an assessment of the Soil and Water Assessment Tool(SWAT) on a glaciated(Qugaqie) and a non-glaciated(Niyaqu) subbasin of the Nam Co Lake. The Nam Co Lake is located in the southern Tibetan Plateau, two subbasins having catchment areas of 59 km^2 and 388 km^2, respectively. The scores of examined evaluation indices(i.e., R^2, NSE, and PBIAS) established that the performance of the SWAT model was better on the monthly scale compared to the daily scale. The respective monthly values of R^2, NSE, and PBIAS were 0.94, 0.97, and 0.50 for the calibration period while 0.92, 0.88, and -8.80 for the validation period. Glacier melt contribution in the study domain was simulated by using the SWAT model in conjunction with the Degree Day Melt(DDM) approach. The conjunction of DDM with the SWAT Model ensued improved results during both calibration(R^2=0.96, NSE=0.95, and PBIAS=-13.49) and validation (R^2=0.97, NSE=0.96, and PBIAS=-2.87) periods on the monthly time scale. Average contribution(in percentage) of water balance components to the total streamflow of Niyaqu and Qugaqie subbasins was evaluated. We found that the major portion(99.45%) of the streamflow in the Niyaqu subbasin was generated by snowmelt or rainfall surface runoff(SURF_Q), followed by groundwater(GW_Q, 0.47%), and lateral(LAT_Q, 0.06%) flows. Conversely, in the Qugaqie subbasin, major contributor to the streamflow(79.63%) was glacier melt(GLC_Q), followed by SURF_Q(20.14%), GW_Q(0.13%), and LAT_Q(0.089%). The contribution of GLC_Q was the highest(86.79%) in July and lowest(69.95%) in September. This study concludes that the performance of the SWAT model in glaciated catchment is weak without considering glacier component in modeling; however, it performs reasonably well in non-glaciated catchment. Furthermore, the temperature index approach with elevation bands is viable in those catchments where streamflows are driven by snowmelt. Therefore, it is recommended to use the SWAT Model in conjunction with DDM or energy base model to simulate the glacier melt contribution to the total streamflow. This study might be helpful in quantification and better management of water resources in data scarce glaciated regions.

The response of lake-glacier variations to climate change in Nam Co Catchment, central Tibetan Plateau, during 1970-2000

Based upon the 1970 aero-photo topographic map, and TM/ETM satellite images taken in 1991 and 2000, the authors artificially interpreted boundaries of lake and glaciers in Nam Co Catchment, and quantified lake-glacier area variations in different stages by ＂integrated method＂ with the support of GIS. Results show that from 1970 to 2000, lake area increased from 1942.34 km^2 to 1979.79 km^2 at a rate of 1.27 km^2/a, while glacier area decreased from 167.62 km^2 to 141.88 km^2 at a rate of 0.86 km^2/a. The increasing rate of lake in 1991-2000 was 1.76 km^2/a that was faster than 1.03 km^2/a in 1970-1991, while in the same period of time, the shrinking rates of glaciers were 0.97 km^2/a and 0.80 km^2/a respectively. Important factors, relevant to lake and glacier response to the climate, such as air temperature, precipitation, potential evapotranspiration and their values in warm and cold seasons, were discussed. The result suggests that temperature increasing is the main reason for the accelerated melting of glaciers. Lake expansion is mainly induced by the increase of the glacier melting water, increase of precipitation and obvious decrease of potential evapotranspiration. Precipitation, evaporation and their linkages with lake enlargement on regional scale need to be thoroughly studied under the background of global warming and glacier retreating.

Quaternary Lake Deposits of Nam Co, Tibet, with a Discussion of the Connection of Nam Co with Ring Co-Jiuru Co

Shorelines are widespread and lake deposits and lake geomorphology are welldeveloped on the northern Tibetan Plateau. Through field observations of lacustrine deposits of NamCo-the highest and largest Quaternary lake in Tibet, the authors found four-step shore terracescomposed of sands and clays with well-developed horizontal bedding and 3-12 m, 15-22 m, 25-30 m and35-45 m higher than the lake surface respectively, lacustrine deposits resting on the bedrocks and60-150 m higher than the lake surface, and up to approx 50 levees composed of oblate lakeshoregravels. Moreover they found lacustrine and lakeshore deposits making up the terraces and levees onthe bottoms of wide dividing valleys connecting Nam Co with the Rencoyuema, Rencogongma and Jiuru Conorthwest of Nam Co (the valley bottoms are 20 m, 90 m and 60 m higher than the above-mentionedthree lakes) and on slopes north of it, i.e. terraces II and III of Nam Co. Thus they confirm thatNam Co and Ring Co-Jiuru Co had connected with each other several times, i.e. formed a unified largelake several times, rather than had been different lakes connected only by river channels. Fromindications such as the distribution of the highest shoreline and lake deposits and geomorphology,the authors conclude that the total area of the old large lakes on the northern Tibetan Plateau is afew times larger than that of the modern lakes and that the last-stage old large lakes formed inthe interglacial interval of the last glaciation.

WRF-Lake模式不同参数化方案对纳木错湖区夏季大气边界层模拟的影响

采用改进湖泊动力参数模块的WRF-Lake模式(WRF4.4.1),选取6种微物理方案、5种积云对流方案、2种边界层方案,共60种参数化方案组合对纳木错湖区2008年7月5-13日天气进行模拟,通过敏感性试验对比分析不同参数化方案组合对大气边界层内变量的模拟效果,利用“排名方法”对不同参数化方案在纳木错湖区夏季大气边界层的模拟能力进行综合评估。结果表明,模式能较好捕捉纳木错夏季平均2 m温度的总体时空分布特征,但湖上2 m温度模拟值偏高;受积云对流参数化方案和模式性能影响,各试验组对降水的模拟效果差异化显著并对日降水量存在不同程度的高估;模式对纳木错测站潜热通量日平均变化模拟性能最好,感热和风向较好,风速最差。整体而言,综合分析各试验组对纳木错湖夏季大气边界层的模拟能力发现,方案58(SBU-Tiedtke-MYNN3)对纳木错湖夏季2 m温度、日降水量、10 m风场及地表热通量的模拟效果最好。2 m温度RMSE值为2.38℃,日降水量RMSE值为10.48 mm,10 m风速日平均变化的相关系数为-0.41,标准差之比为0.94,10 m风向日平均变化的相关系数为0.59,标准差之比为0.73,感热通量日平均变化的相关系数为0.94,标准差之比为1.89,潜热通量日平均变化的相关系数为0.89,标准差之比为0.91。因此,建议使用以上次网格参数化方案进行纳木错湖区夏季大气边界层模拟。

Evolution of an Ancient Large Lake in the Southeast of the Northern Tibetan Plateau

Nam Co is the largest (1920 km2 in area) and highest (4718 m above sea level) lake in Tibet. According to the discovery of lake terraces and highstand lacustrine deposits at several places in Nam Co and its adjacent areas, the authors confirm the existence of an ancient large lake in the southeastern part of the northern Tibetan Plateau. On the basis of the U-series, 14C and ESR dating, coupled with the levelling survey of lake deposits and geomorphology, the evolutionary process of the ancient large lake in the southeastern part of the northern Tibetan Plateau may fall into three stages: (1) the ancient large lake stage at 115-40 ka BP, when the ancient lake level was 140-26 m above the level of present Nam Co; (2) the outflow lake stage at 40-30 ka BP, when the ancient level was 26-19 m above the present lake level; and (3) the Nam Co stage since 30 ka BP, when the ancient lake level was < 19 m above the present lake level. During the ancient large lake stage, a large number of modern large, medium-sized and small lakes, including Nam Co, Siling Co and Zhari Namco, in the southeastern part of the northern Tibetan Plateau, were connected into a single large ancient lake, rather than several separate lakes connected by river channels. Its areal extent may have gone beyond the watersheds of the modern endorheic and exorheic drainage systems; so it may be called the 'ancient east lake', 'ancient south lake' and 'ancient west lake'. It might also be connected with other ancient lakes in the southern and western parts of the northern Tibetan Plateau to form a unified 'ancient large lake' on the northern Tibetan Plateau.

纳木措不同水文期水体酵母菌影响因素分析

于2020年8月(丰水期)和2021年5月(枯水期)对纳木措水体可培养酵母菌群落结构特征进行研究,共分离得到33个属70个种的2411株酵母菌.生物信息学和统计学结果显示,纳木措不同水文期水体酵母菌总丰度、物种组成和群落结构存在显著差异,枯水期水体pH值、电导率、化学需氧量及总氮显著高于丰水期.中性群落拟合及相关性分析显示,相较随机过程而言,确定性过程对水体可培养酵母菌群落结构的影响更为明显,水体氨氮、总磷、电导率以及化学需氧量是显著影响水体酵母菌群落结构的环境因子.生态位量度显示,枯水期酵母菌优势种生态位宽度指数和生态位重叠指数均低于丰水期,环境因子对优势酵母菌类群的资源利用方式及种间关系具有较大影响.对枯水期水体营养水平的监测有助于纳木措水体酵母菌资源的保护.

纳木措春季水体可培养丝状真菌优势种生态位分析

为探明纳木措春季水体可培养丝状真菌的群落特征,研究在分离纯化丝状真菌的基础上,结合经典分类法、rRNA-ITS转录间隔区测序法确定丝状真菌的群落组成及丰度;同时对水体理化因子进行分析,揭示丝状真菌优势类群生态分化与理化因子的相关性。结果在纳木措水体中共分离纯化出921株丝状真菌,归为20属62种,真菌资源较为丰富。其中,主要优势种(Y>0.02)包括:普通青霉Penicillium commune、酒色青霉Penicillium vinaceum、波兰青霉Penicillium polonicum、青霉菌Penicillium goetzii、灰玫瑰青霉Penicillium griseoroseum、冻土毛霉Mucor hiemalis、总状毛霉Mucor racemosus、格孢腔菌Pleosporales sp.2和壳青霉Penicillium crustosum。优势种生态位指数显示,优势种间生态响应速率之和为负数,低度重叠的种对占比较大(56.94%),总体上呈正关联,但未达到显著水平(χ2>3.841),表明群落正处于衰退阶段。优势种间竞争弱,关系松散,对资源利用或生态适应能力有着较大的差异,且优势种间未达到相对的动态平衡,尚未演替至顶级阶段。理化因子与优势种的相关性显示,盐浓度、电导率、化学需氧量、浊度及铵态氮是影响纳木措丝状真菌优势种分布的主要因子。相关研究为正确认识高原湖泊可培养丝状真菌种群特征提供了基础数据,也为可培养丝状真菌的开发和利用奠定了基础。

西藏纳木错沿岸表层水体浮游细菌群落结构及生态功能预测

浮游细菌群落对高原湖泊变化具有高度响应性,并且会影响高原湖泊生境的地球化学平衡。因此,了解高原湖泊中浮游细菌群落的分布特征,阐明其在高原湖泊生态系统中的生态功能具有重要科学意义。2021年5月对纳木错沿岸浮游细菌群落分布特征进行了调查研究,并采用16S rDNA高通量测序技术对样品进行分析,通过α-多样性指数分析浮游细菌群落的差异性,通过共现网络分析浮游细菌群落之间的相互作用,利用Pearson相关系数衡量理化因子与α-多样性指数的相关性,采用冗余分析(RDA)探讨水体理化因子对浮游细菌群落结构的影响,并基于PICRUSTt2对纳木错浮游细菌进行功能预测。结果表明:浮游细菌群落主要由变形菌门(Proteobacteria)、拟杆菌门(Bacteroidetes)、放线菌门(Actinobacteria)、蓝细菌门(Cyanobacteria)和厚壁菌门(Firmicutes)组成,其中变形菌门相对丰度最高,主要包括γ-变形菌纲(Gamma-proteobacteria)和α-变形菌纲(Alpha-proteobacteria);噬氢菌属(Hydrogenophaga)和嗜冷菌属(Algoriphagus)为相对优势菌属。α-多样性指数表明,纳木错浮游细菌群落比较丰富。共现网络节点间关系以正相关为主;总溶解固体量(TDS)和盐度(Sal)是影响纳木错浮游细菌群落结构的关键因子。功能预测结果显示,纳木错浮游细菌群落功能主要涉及代谢、遗传信息处理、环境信息处理等6类生物代谢通路,以及膜运输、氨基酸代谢、碳水化合物代谢等46个子功能。综上所述,纳木错浮游细菌群落结构在各样点间存在一定差异,浮游细菌在门级水平上类群间相互作用主要为协同作用,其群落结构是多个因子共同作用的结果。研究阐明了纳木错浮游细菌群落组成和功能及其与环境因子的相互联系,可为当地生态环境保护提供科学依据。

青藏高原纳木错夏季沿岸水体可培养细菌多样性及其与理化因子的相关性

纳木错位于青藏高原中南部,是该地区独具特色的咸水湖泊。对纳木错夏季沿岸水体可培养细菌物种多样性进行研究,并揭示细菌群落多样性及物种分布与水质理化指标间的相关性。运用直接涂布平板法与稀释涂布平板法来分离湖水中的可培养细菌,细菌菌株的鉴定采用16S rDNA基因序列分析结合经典分类方法,并使用R 4.1.1、SPSS 20.0等软件分析细菌群落多样性。结果显示,从纳木错夏季沿岸水体20个样点中共分离得到681株可培养细菌,鉴定分为16属43种,其中优势种为Acinetobacter johnsonii。Spearman相关系数显示,总磷与总氮均为影响细菌群落多样性的主要理化指标,总磷显著影响细菌总丰度(P<0.05),总氮显著影响Simpson多样性指数(P<0.05)。RDA结果显示,氨氮是影响细菌群落分布的主要理化指标(P<0.05)。本研究初步揭示了纳木错夏季沿岸水体可培养细菌群落多样性,并获得较丰富的细菌菌株资源。

青藏高原纳木错异常高湖面重建工作研究进展与展望

青藏高原的许多湖泊发育有湖岸线、侵蚀阶地和高湖面沉积物,这些地貌和沉积单元是反映地质历史时期湖面变化的直接地貌和岩性证据。它们不仅反映了湖泊水文变化历史,还可作为揭示区域乃至全球环境变化的重要载体。在青藏高原众多湖泊中,纳木错最具典型性和代表性。纳木错湖岸最高古湖相沉积物位于现代湖面之上约150 m,高出当今溢流垭口约123 m。至今,有关纳木错异常高湖面的发育时代、湖侵-湖退过程、异常高湖面的形成机制、与其他湖泊之间的水文联系等科学问题仍不清楚或存在很大争议。本文以纳木错异常高湖面的特征、时代、期次和成因问题为主题,综述了一个多世纪以来国内外学者对纳木错湖面变化重建的研究成果,尤其对目前纳木错古湖面重建研究中存在的问题进行了总结,并对未来的工作重点进行了展望。此外,基于初步的调查结果,认为纳木错高湖面沉积可能形成于全新世中晚期,并指示了一次湖侵-湖退过程。南支槽的异常振荡及其导致的冬半年降水增加可能是引起湖面变化的主要驱动因素。

Quantitative analysis of lake area variations and the influence factors from 1971 to 2004 in the Nam Co basin of the Tibetan Plateau

By using remote sensing and GIS technologies, spatial analysis and statistic analysis, we calculated the water area and volume variations of the Nam Co Lake from 1971-2004, and discussed their influence factors from the viewpoints of climatic change and water balance. Data source in this study includes bathymetric data of the lake, aerial surveyed topographic maps of 1970, remote sensing images of 1991 and 2004 in the lake catchment, meteorological data from 17 stations within 1971-2004 in the adjacent area of the lake catchment. The results showed that the lake area expanded from 1920 km2 to 2015 km2 during 1971 to 2004 with the mean annual increasing rate (MAIR) of 2.81 km2 a-1, and the lake volume augmented from 783.23×108 m3 to 863.77×108 m3 with the MAIR of 2.37×108 m3. Moreover, the MAIR of the lake area and volume are both higher during 1992 to 2004 (4.01 km2 a-1 and 3.61×108 m3 a-1) than those during 1971 to 1991 (2.06 km2 a-1 and 1.60×108 m3 a-1). Analyses of meteorological data indicated that the continue rising of air temperature conduced more glacier melting water. This part of water supply, together with the increasing precipitation and the descending evaporation, contributed to the enlargement of Nam Co Lake. The roughly water balance analyses of lake water volume implied that, in two study periods (1971-1991 and 1992-2004), the precipitation supplies (direct precipitations on the lake area and stream flow derived from precipitations) accounted for 63% and 61.92% of the whole supplies, while the glacier melting water supplies occupied only 8.55% and 11.48%, respectively. This showed that precipitations were main water supplies of the Nam Co Lake. However, for the reason of lake water increasing, the increased amount from precipitations accounted for 46.67% of total increased water supplies, while the increased amount from glacier melting water reached 52.86% of total increased water supplies. The ratio of lake evaporation and lake volume augment showed that 95.71% of total increased water supplies contributed to the augment of lake volume. Therefore, the increased glacier melting water accounted for about 50.6% of augment of the lake volume, which suggested that the increased glacier melting water was the main reason for the quickly enlargement of the Nam Co lake under the continuous temperature rising.

Summertime Thermally-Induced Circulations over the Lake Nam Co Region of the Tibetan Plateau

Performance of the fifth-generation Pennsylvania State University/National Center for Atmospheric Research Mesoscale Model（MM5） over the Lake Nam Co region of the Tibetan Plateau was evaluated based on the data from five surface observation sites in 2006. The interaction between two thermally-induced circulations（lake breezes and mountain-valley winds） was also investigated. The results show that MM5 could be used to simulate 2-m air temperature; however, MM5 needs improvement in wind field simulation.Two numerical simulations were conducted to study the effect of the lake on the local weather and wind system. The original land cover of the model was used in the control experiment, and the lake was replaced with grassland resembling the area surrounding the lake in the sensitive experiment. The results of the simulations indicate that the lake enhanced the north slope mountain-valley wind and the mountain changed the offshore flow direction at the north shore. During the day, a clear convergent zone and a strong upflow were observed over the north slope of the Nyainq？entanglha Range, which may cause frequent precipitation over the north slope. During the night, the entire area was controlled by a south flow.

Mechanism of variations in environmental magnetic proxies of lake sediments from Nam Co, Tibet during the Holocene

High-resolution environmental records from the Tibetan Plateau are essential to understand past global climatic and environmental changes. Magnetic minerals in lake sediments are important proxies to reconstruct environmental and climatic changes. Nam Co (lake) is a typical great lake in the transitional region of southwest monsoon in the Tibetan Plateau. Previous studies have extensively focused on geochemistry, microfossils, sedimentology and biochemistry analysis of Nam Co, which provides sound interpretation of paleoclimatic and paleoenvironmental changes. However, up to now, no systematic environmental magnetic studies have been carried out. Therefore, high-resolution and systematic magnetic studies combined with geochemical parameters were carried on lake sediments of core NC 08/01 from Nam Co for the Holocene period (11.3 cal ka BP) in order to explore how magnetic properties of the sediments respond to climatic changes. Based on variations of magnetic proxies, the sequence can be separated into 3 units. Unit 1 (236-199 cm, 11.3-7.8 cal ka BP) contains dominantly coarse-grained magnetite with homogeneous grain size. A positive correlation between magnetite and Ti strongly suggests that these coarse-grained detrital magnetites reflect detrital input signals due to insignificant effects of postdepositional dissolution processes on these coarse-grained magnetite particles. For Unit 2 (198-102 cm, 7.8-2.1 cal ka BP), magnetic grain size is finer and the corresponding concentration of magnetite is also reduced. This is mainly due to significant dissolution of these fine-grained detrital magnetite particles, which were transported under reduced water flow conditions during this period. For Unit 3 (101-0 cm, 2.1-0 cal ka BP), the bulk magnetic properties are dominated by a mixture of single domain biogenic magnetite and detrital magnetite. The concentration of magnetic minerals is not correlated with the Ti content. In conclusion, the preservation of magnetic minerals in the lake sediment and thus the corresponding magnetic properties are related to the initial grain size. Combination of magnetic properties (including variation of grain size and concentration) and other proxies of detrital inputs (e.g. Ti) can be used to infer the variation of redox conditions in Nam Co. These results provide a viable framework for reconstructing the paleoenvironmental changes of this lake.

Environmental changes reflected by n-alkanes of lake core in Nam Co on the Tibetan Plateau since 8.4 kaB.P.

The n-alkanes are extracted from NMLC-1 core that was drilled in the Nam Co, central Tibet. They are measured by using Gas Chromatography and Mass Spectrometry (GC/MS) for componential and quantitative analyses. According to the constructed depth-age model, the component and concentration of n-alkanes, together with total organic carbon (TOC), total nitrogen (TN) and carbonate are used to elu- cidate palaeoenvironmental changes of Nam Co during the past 8.4 ka. The results indicate that Holo- cene environment performs three stages in the lake area. In the stage of 8.4―6.7 kaB.P., it was warmer while precipitation slightly increased. This stage was ended by an obvious cold/dry event. During 6.7― 5.8 kaB.P., temperature increased rapidly and reached its maximum values at about 6.0 kaB.P. The environments were warm/wet optimum for the blooming of terrestrial plants and submerged aquatic plants. After that, temperature decreased continuously and showed the lowest values at about 3.0 kaB.P. From 2.9 kaB.P. to the present, temperature rose again but alternated with cold and warm. The lake area tended to be dry after 1.4 kaB.P. During 600―400 aB.P., the environmental feature was the reflection of "Little Ice Age".

Spatial and Temporal Dynamics of Lakes in Nam Co Basin, 1991–2011

Lakes in Tibet Plateau with little effects of human activities serve as important indicators of climate change. This study analysed remote sensing data and long term climate variables to examine the hydrological response of lakes in Nam Co Basin. The area changes of lakes were extracted by Landsat TM/ETM＋ and analysed by SRTM 3 DEM. And the ICESat elevation data between 2003 and 2009 were used to observe the lake level of the Nam Co Lake. The results show that the number of new formed glacier lakes increased by 36% and the area of glacier lakes increased by 36.7%（0.97 km^2） from 1991 to 2011. At the same time, the surface area of the Nam Co Lake expanded by 3.71%（72.64 km^2） of the original size in 1991, with a tendency value of 3.63 km^2 per year. The lake level of the Nam Co Lake shows an increase tendency of 0.24 m per year during 2003-2009. These variations appear to be related to an increase in mean annual temperature of 0.06 oC per year, and an increase in annual precipitation of 2.1 mm per year in summer in the last two decades. The increased number of lakes and increased area of glacial lakes reached a peak at an altitude of 5 500-5 600 m a.s.l.. The number of new formed glacier lakes and the area of glacier lakes tend to higher altitudes. Climate change has an important impact on the variation of the glacier lakes and the Nam Co Lake.

西藏纳木错深水湖芯反映的8·4ka以来气候环境变化

利用地震剖面仪和回声测深仪调查了纳木错大部分湖区的水深和沉积物厚度分布,并在湖区东部水深60m的湖盆利用PISTON采样器获得一个332cm长的钻孔。对该钻孔进行了12个AMS14C年代测定,并进行了日历年龄校正和“碳库”效应估算,根据沉积物平均粒径建立了整个钻孔的深度-年代模式。对该钻孔进行了有机碳、总氮、正构烷烃、粒度、元素地球化学、碳酸钙和矿物等环境指标的分析,结果显示8·4ka以来湖区环境变化可以分为明显的3个阶段。早期约8400～6400aB·P.,以温度缓慢下降为主,但在8100～7800aB·P.出现一次显著的冷干事件;中期为6400～2900aB·P.,其开始显示了温暖湿润的环境特点,在6000aB·P.左右出现最强的暖湿特征后其后期转向冷干,在3000～2900aB·P.达到寒冷和干旱的低谷,反映了新冰期时期的温度强烈下降和降水的分配不均;晚期从2900aB·P.到现在,尽管温度出现回升,但总体上显示了向冷干波动变化的趋势,期间第一次降温在1800～1600aB·P.,之后温度回升后在600～300aB·P.再次下降,前者反映了公元初期的降温,后者则是小冰期的反映。

西藏纳木错末次间冰期以来的气候变迁与湖面变化

在西藏纳木错沿岸 ,发育了 6级湖岸阶地及拔湖 48～ 1 39.2m的高位湖相沉积。根据湖相沉积的U系法测年和孢粉分析结果 ,本文探讨了纳木错及邻区末次间冰期 (MIS 5)以来的古植被、古气候与湖面变化。研究表明 ,纳木错与邻区的湖面变化可以划分为 1 1 6～37kaB .P .间的古大湖———“羌塘东湖”期、37～ 30kaB .P .间的“古纳木错”外流湖 -残余古大湖期和 30kaB .P .以来的纳木错 -藏北湖群期等 3大阶段。在MIS 5的古大湖阶段 ,包括纳木错、色林错等藏北高原东南部的众多大、中型湖泊 ,是互相连通的一个大湖 ,其范围可能超过了现代的藏北内、外流 (怒江 )水系的分水岭。在MIS 5e末的最高湖面时期 ,湖面面积可达7880 0km2 ,它或许还与藏北高原西南部和中南部的其他古大湖相连 ,成为面积巨大的网格状深水大湖———“羌塘湖”。通过纳木错湖面变化曲线与西昆仑古里雅、格陵兰、南极等冰芯和深海岩芯的氧同位素变化曲线的对比可以发现 ,全球MIS 5的气温要高于末次冰期间冰阶(MIS 3) ,此时藏北高原为气候温和轻爽与湖面最高的大湖期 ;在末次冰期的两个冰阶 (MIS 4和MIS 2 )中 ,湖面明显下降 ,邻近的念青唐古拉山发育了小型山谷冰川 ;而在间冰阶MIS 3中 ,其气候波动的幅度 ,要比世界其他地区更加明显 。

西藏纳木错及邻区全新世气候与环境变化的地质记录

综合分析了全新世期间内的多种与气候和环境变化密切相关的地质记录,结果表明该区全新世期间的气候变化可划分为3个阶段:1)约11 8～8 4kaBP期间,处于微温期和升温期,气候相对温和稍湿.2)8 4～4 0kaBP期间,为全新世气候最适宜时期或大暖期.该期间的平均气温可能比现今高约5℃,降水量比今多100～200mm.3)4 0kaBP以来,气候整体较为干冷.纳木错湖面发生持续下降,其最大下降幅度可达11 4m.冰川进退和湖面波动表明,该期间内的气候波动过程分别与新冰期和小冰期相对应,其中又各包含了3次明显的冷期,其中新冰期期间的最低年平均气温可达-6℃左右.约1970年以来,区域气候向暖湿方向转化,造成念青唐古拉山西布冰川后退约120～200m,纳木错湖面上涨了约2m.

西藏纳木错晚更新世以来的湖泊发育

位于藏北高原东南部的纳木错是西藏面积最大 (192 0km2 )的湖泊和海拔最高 (4718m)的大湖。 19条剖面的水准测量结果表明 ,在纳木错沿岸 ,发育了拔湖 1.5～ 8.3m、8.3～ 15 .6m、14 .0～ 19.9m、18.7～ 2 5 .8m、2 6 .0～ 36 .9m和 38.3～4 7.6m等 6级湖岸阶地和拔湖 4 8m以上 (最高至 139.2m)的高位湖相沉积 ;在拔湖 2 7m以下 ,发育多达 8～ 30条的湖岸堤 ;而一条明显的湖蚀凹槽则集中出现在拔湖 17.5m～ 19.8m的高度上 ,与纳木错和仁错的分水垭口的高度相当。纳木错沿岸7个剖面中的 12个和邻近湖泊的 3个富含碳酸盐的湖相或湖滨相沉积的铀系全溶样品的等时线年龄测定结果表明 ,高位湖相沉积形成于 90 .7± 9.9kaBP至 71.8± 8.5kaBP的晚更新世早期 ,第六、五、四、三和二级阶地分别形成于 5 3.7± 4 .2kaBP、4 1.2± 4 .7～ 39.5± 3.0kaBP、35 .2± 3.0kaBP、32 .3± 4 .4kaBP和 2 8.2± 2 .8kaBP的晚更新世中晚期 ,而与湖蚀凹槽相当的湖滨相沉积则稍早于 2 9.3± 2 .7kaBP。因此 ,本文将纳木错的发育划分为 90～ 4 0kaBP间的羌塘古大湖 ,4 0～ 30kaBP间的外流湖和 30kaBP以来的纳木错等 3大阶段。在古大湖阶段 ,包括纳木错、色林错等藏北高原东南部的一大批现代大中型湖泊 ,是互相连通的一个大湖 ,?

西藏纳木错第四纪湖泊沉积与湖成地貌——兼论藏北高原古大湖问题

对西藏面积最大的湖泊纳木错湖相沉积野外观察结果 ,发现了由水平层理十分发育的砂与粘土所组成的、高出湖面分别为 3～ 12m、15～ 2 2m、2 5～ 30m与 35～ 4 5m的 4级湖岸阶地 ,覆于基岩之上、高出湖面 6 0～ 15 0m的湖相沉积和多达 5 0条左右、由扁圆湖滨相砾石所组成的湖岸堤 ,环湖广泛分布的湖成地貌。在连结纳木错与其西北的仁错约玛、仁错贡玛、久如错的分水岭宽谷底部(分别高出上述 3湖 2 0m、90m与 6 0m)与北侧山坡 ,即纳木错的第二与第三级湖岸阶地 ,发现了组成阶地与岸堤的湖相与湖滨相沉积。从而确证了纳木错与仁错—久如错曾多次连通 ,即数度成为一个统一的大湖 ,而不是以河道相连的不同湖泊。古大湖分离时代为末次冰期间冰段。