Evaluation of the WRF Model with Different Land Surface Schemes: A Drought Event Simulation in Southwest China during 2009–10

The authors examined the performance of version 3.4.1 of the Weather Research and Forecasting Model(WRF) with various land surface schemes in simulating a severe drought event in Southwest China. Five numerical experiments were completed using the Noah land surface scheme, the Pleim-Xiu land surface scheme, the Noah-MP land surface schemes, the Noah- MP scheme with dynamic vegetation, and the Noah-MP scheme with dynamic vegetation and groundwater processes. In general, all the simulations reasonably reproduced the spatial and temporal variations in precipitation, but significant bias was also found, especially for the spatial pattern of simulated precipitation. The WRF simulations with the Noah-MP series land surface schemes performed slightly better than the WRF simulation with the Noah and Pleim-Xiu land surface schemes in reproducing the severe drought events in Southwest China. The leaf area index(LAI) simulated by the different land surface schemes showed significant deviations in Southwest China. The Pleim-Xiu scheme overestimated the value of LAI by a factor of two. The Noah-MP scheme with dynamical vegetation overestimated the magnitude of the annual cycle of the LAI, although the annual mean LAI was close to observations. The simulated LAI showed a long-term lower value from autumn 2009 to spring 2010 relative to normal years. This indicates that the LAI is a potential indictor to monitor drought events.

Impact of forcing data and land surface properties on snow simulation in a regional climate model:a case study over the Tianshan Mountains,Central Asia

Snow is a key variable that influences hydrological and climatic cycles.Land surface models employing snow physics-modules can simulate the snow accumulation and ablation processes.However,there are still uncertainties in modeling snow resources over complex terrain such as mountains.This study employed the National Center for Atmospheric Research’s Weather Research and Forecasting(WRF)model coupled with the Noah-Multiparameterization(Noah-MP)land surface model to run one-year simulations to assess its ability to simulate snow across the Tianshan Mountains.Six tests were conducted based on different reanalysis forcing datasets and different land surface properties.The results indicated that the snow dynamics were reproduced in a snow hydrological year by the WRF/Noah-MP model for all of the tests.The model produced a low bias in snow depth and snow water equivalent(SWE)regardless of the forcing datasets.Additionally,the underestimation of snow depth and SWE could be relatively alleviated by modifying the land cover and vegetation parameters.However,no significant improvement in accuracy was found in the date of snow depth maximum and melt rate.The best performance was achieved using ERA5 with modified land cover and vegetation parameters(mean bias=−4.03 mm and−1.441 mm for snow depth and SWE,respectively).This study highlights the importance of selecting forcing data for snow simulation over the Tianshan Mountains.

Noah-MP陆面模式在东疆黑戈壁的适用性

新疆东部黑戈壁作为气候恶劣、人迹罕至及黑色砾石下垫面的生态脆弱区,陆面过程参数化方案不易确定。利用东疆哈密戈壁陆气相互作用站观测数据集,开展Noah-MP陆面模式离线模拟试验,找出适合戈壁区域的最佳参数化方案组合,给出了土壤湿度对戈壁区域陆气热交换的影响。结果表明:(1)针对感热通量(H)、净辐射通量(R0)和土壤地表温度(T0)均表现为第二种组合方案的模拟误差(MB)最小,其中MBH=18.28 W·m^(-2),MBR0=14.92 W·m^(-2),MBT0=-1.19℃,模式效率(NSE)最高NSEH=0.74,NSER0=0.98,NSET0=0.96。针对潜热通量(LE)表现为第一种组合方案模拟效果最佳,其中MB为7.10 W·m^(-2),NSE为-0.57。(2)模式针对土壤湿度的模拟效果均不好,模式预报土壤湿度偏干,第七种组合方案的模式效率指数较高,为0.278。(3)针对土壤10 cm温度,第一种组合方案虽预报效率指数最高,为0.7,但误差较大,达1.23℃,第二种组合方案误差最小,为0.45℃。第二种组合方案在东疆黑戈壁地区的普适性最高。(4)Noah-MP在RMAPS-CA系统中在线耦合后,2 m温度的预报效果整体优于离线Noah模式。

我国东南地区Noah-MP模式地表温度模拟参数化方案寻优研究

陆面模式Noah-MP(Noah land surface model with Multi-Parameterizations)为陆面物理过程提供了大量复杂的参数化方案,往往受限于计算量和计算能力,使得利用全组合方案实验,来确定适用的参数化方案难以实现,从而给模式模拟带来不确定性。为科学减少实验次数,本文引入正交试验法,选择了影响地表温度模拟较大的5个主要过程,包括动态植被、气孔阻抗过程、控制气孔阻抗的土壤湿度参数过程和表面热交换系数过程以及辐射传输过程等,设计了9次正交试验,利用CLDAS-V2.0(中国气象局陆面数据同化系统)驱动Noah-MP陆面模式对我国东南地区地表温度进行模拟,对参数化方案寻优,以确定其适用的参数化方案组合。结果表明,参数化方案的选择对林地区域的模拟,以及在7月和8月的模拟影响较大。物理过程的敏感性和最优参数化方案同时受到下垫面和季节的影响,多数情况中,动态植被与冠层气孔阻抗过程对模拟影响显著,是较敏感的物理过程。通过对不同下垫面不同季节的最优参数化方案组合的时空尺度分析,经模拟验证,东南地区地表温度模拟的较优方案组合为开启动态植被,Ball-Berry的冠层气孔阻抗方案,Noah的土壤湿度参数方案,M-O的地表热交换系数方案和GAPFVEG的辐射传输方案。

Carrier Landing Robust Control Based on Longitudinal Decoupling

We studied carrier landing robust control based on longitudinal decoupling.Firstly,due to the relative strong coupling between the tangential and the normal directions,the height and the velocity channels were decoupled by using the exact linearization method,so that controllers for the two channels could be designed seperately.In the height control,recursive dynamic surface was used to accelerate the convergence of the height control and eliminate″the explosion of complexity″.The radial basis function(RBF)neural network was designed by using the minimum learning parameter method to compensate the uncertainty.A kind of surface with nonsingular fast terminal sliding mode and its reaching law were developed to ensure finite time convergence and to avoid singularity.The controller for the velocity was designed by using super-twisting second-order sliding mode control.The stability of the proposed system was validated by Lyapunov method.The results showed that the Levant′s robust differential observer was improved and used for the observation of the required higher order differential of signals in the controller.The response of aircraft carrier landing under the complex disturbance is simulated and the results verified the approach.

不同覆被下红壤坡地地表径流及其养分流失特征

通过对南方红壤坡地农作区、茶园、柑橘园、退化区和恢复区5种不同利用方式所产生的地表径流量的全年连续观测及其径流水中养分含量分析,结果表明:覆被植物群落类型单一化和农事耕作都能增加地表径流量、次数和增加养分流失,5种类型地表径流量不论是月平均径流量还是年总径流量,其大小关系为农作区*>茶园*>柑橘园>退化区>恢复区*,产流次数也是恢复区最少,其余4种类型基本一致;径流水中总P、K+、Ca2+、Mg2+和SO42-流失量以农作区达到最大,茶园和柑橘园次之,然后是退化区和,恢复区的径流各养分流失量最少,耕作区的总P、K+、Ca2+、Mg2+和SO42-流失量大于非耕作区,覆被植物群落类型少的总P、K+、Ca2+、Mg2+和SO42-流失量大于覆被植物群落类型复杂。综合考虑,红壤坡地用来耕作可以加剧水土和土壤养分流失,自然植被对红壤坡地保持水土和养分效果最佳,如果种植经济价值较高的果林和药、茶、草等需采用复种方式,避免单一种植和减少人工扰动,以便维持坡地土壤利用的可持续性。

四湖流域下垫面改变对排涝模数的影响

选取湖北省四湖流域螺山排区作为研究对象,利用经验公式法计算排涝模数,并分析水面率、水旱比、城市化和灌溉方式及其变化对排涝模数的影响。结果表明:排涝模数随着水旱比和水面率的增加而减小,而随着地面硬化率的增加而增大;水面率对排涝模数的影响大于水旱比和地面硬化率的影响;同水稻的传统灌溉相比,间歇灌溉下的排涝模数较小。由于下垫面条件的改变,在10年一遇3日暴雨的排涝标准下,该地区排涝模数由1994年的0.38m3/(s·km2)上升到2011年的0.46m3/(s·km2),大约相当于1994年下垫面条件下的19年一遇3日暴雨的排涝标准。

中国地区下垫面特征对强对流天气影响研究进展

下垫面所具有的非均匀性特征会对强对流天气产生很大的影响作用,这种影响主要通过改变边界层热力、动力过程及地气之间的热量输送与水分循环,进而改变大气的温湿结构和垂直运动来实现。该文主要介绍利用陆面模式研究下垫面特征的成果,并且讨论不同类型下垫面,包括自然形成的地表特征、植被覆盖及城市化作用等对强对流天气影响的研究成果,重点分析中国地区,就陆面模式的模拟方法和下垫面变化时所产生的问题进行深入的探讨。

两种着陆模式下的着陆器缓冲机构构型优化

分别建立了着陆器在非0高度关机着陆模式下、触地关机着陆模式下的动力学仿真模型。基于仿真模型,应用全因子实验设计方法分析了着陆器在两种着陆模式下的软着陆性能,得到了软着陆极恶劣工况。为了获得软着陆性能最佳的着陆器设计方案,研究了着陆缓冲机构构型参数对软着陆性能的影响。结合仿真模型与实验设计方法获取样本点,构造了极恶劣工况下描述软着陆性能指标值、着陆缓冲机构构型参数之间映射关系的响应面模型。之后利用响应面模型与第二代非劣排序遗传算法(NSGA-II)实现了着陆缓冲机构构型参数的优化。将优化后的参数代入仿真模型验证,着陆器在两种着陆模式下的抗翻倒能力、底面抗损坏能力均得到提升。

Assessment and improvement of Noah-MP for simulating water and heat exchange over alpine grassland in growing season

Alpine grassland is the main ecosystem of the Tibetan Plateau(TP),thus accurate simulation of water and heat exchange in the grassland will significantly enhance the understanding of the land-atmosphere interaction process on the TP.In this study,we assessed and improved the ensemble numerical simulations of the community Noah land surface model with multiparameterization options(Noah-MP)by using observations collected from four alpine grassland observation sites.The four observation sites belong to the upper Heihe River Basin Integrated Observatory Network located in the northeastern part of the TP.First,an ensemble of 1008 numerical simulation experiments,based on multiparameterization options of seven physical processes/variables in the Noah-MP,was carried out for the vegetation growing season.The Taylor skill score was then used to assess the model performance and select the optimal combination of parameterization options for a more exact simulation of the water and heat exchange in alpine grassland.The accuracy of Noah-MP simulation was further improved by introducing new parameterizations of thermal roughness length,soil hydraulic properties,and vertical root distribution.It was found that:(1)Simulation of water and heat exchange over alpine grassland in the growing season was mainly affected by the parameterizations of dynamic vegetation,canopy stomatal resistance,runoff and groundwater dynamics,and surface exchange coefficient for heat transfer.Selection of different parameterization options for these four physical processes/variables led to large differences in the simulation of water and heat fluxes.(2)The optimal combination of parameterization options selected in the current Noah-MP framework suffered from significant overestimation of sensible heat flux(H)and underestimation of soil moisture(θ)at all observation sites.(3)The overestimation of H was significantly improved by introducing a new parameterization of thermal roughness length.Furthermore,the underestimation ofθwas resolved by introducing a new parameterization of soil hydraulic properties that considered the organic matter effect and a new vertical distribution function for the vegetation root system.The results of this study provide an important reference for further improving the simulation of water and heat exchange by using the land surface model in alpine grassland.

基于不同网格分辨率的大尺度模式径流的汇流分析

径流量往往基于较大空间尺度计算求得,再采用汇流模型将径流量转换为河道流量过程。对于大尺度的汇流模型,汇流网络与流域实际河网差别较大,因此采用不同网格分辨率计算分析大尺度径流量的汇流,并应用单位线法和线性圣维南方程计算坡地和河网汇流。结果表明,实际汇水面积随着网格分辨率的不同变化很大;不同时间尺度和网格分辨率下的流量结果的偏差与实际汇水面积和流量值本身大小有关;网格分辨率对流量的影响形式在较大的时间尺度上更加明显。

植被排列方式及坡度对坡面流Fr影响的试验研究

为探究植被的排列方式及坡度大小对坡面流弗劳德数Fr的影响,以期揭示坡面流弗劳德数Fr的内在规律。利用人工模拟试验,系统研究了6个坡度、3种植物排列方向与水流方向呈不同走向角的条件下Fr与单位底面积的空间摩阻表面积K值的特征关系。表明在非淹没状态下,Fr与K值的关系为随K值的增大Fr呈现先减小后趋于平稳的趋势;Fr的取值随坡度的增大而增大;在一定的坡度范围内,同一坡度下,当Fr>1时,同一K值下,走向角越大对应的Fr值越小,当Fr<1时则相反;同一走向角下,在同一K值下,坡度越大对应的Fr就越大。得出在坡度一定的条件下,坡面植被的排列方式不同,弗劳德数Fr的取值也不相同;坡度是影响Fr取值范围的重要因素之一。

基于降雨-径流试验的高寒草甸产流机制研究

对黄河源区高寒草甸产流机制进行研究,为河源区生态环境保护、水资源科学规划管理提供基础水文理论认知。基于野外降雨-径流试验,通过回归分析构建考虑坡度和覆被因子的暴雨和中小雨产流计算模式,精度良好,能够反映暴雨和中小雨2种降雨模式下高寒草甸产流的一般特征。试验结果表明,因草甸土-植体系蓄容能力较强,高寒草甸区地表产流主要发生在暴雨模式下,中小雨模式下的地表产流量一般很小。模式应用表明,草甸发生退化后,暴雨和中小雨入渗均有减少,暴雨模式下退化草甸比高覆草甸入渗减少约12%,中小雨模式下减少约3%。

全球地表气温日较差长期趋势的演化特征

基于多维集合经验模态分解方法,利用CRU全球地表气温日较差、最高气温和最低气温资料,开展对1951~2019年全球地表气温日较差长期趋势的演化研究。结果表明:全球地表气温日较差主要呈现下降趋势,并以北半球中高纬度地区为甚,空间差异性较大。全球地表最高气温和最低气温的长期演化趋势则主要表现为上升,且最低气温更为剧烈。从纬向平均的角度看,全球地表气温日较差长期趋势主要存在五条负值带,降低趋势在北半球逐渐加强,并存在与之相伴随的冷舌,而在南半球呈先增强后减弱的特征。由瞬时演化速率可知,全球地表气温日较差长期趋势下降的速率整体上趋于减缓,并于后期在澳洲北部、地中海沿岸以及南美洲南部等地转为上升趋势。

载人月面大范围机动方案及总体参数优化

针对未来载人探月大范围机动的需求,设计了月面低空飞行、高空飞行、弹道飞行以及入轨再入飞行4种方案,在此基础上建立了数学模型表述飞行过程各阶段参数相关关系,以推进剂消耗量最少为目标,计算分析了4种飞行模式的最优总体参数。研究结果表明,载人千公里往返推进剂(液氢&液氧)消耗量分别为弹道飞行1403 kg、低空飞行2160 kg、高空飞行2349 kg、入轨再入飞行3617 kg,综合考虑飞行器规模、方案可行性以及技术难度等因素,月面千公里量级大范围机动建议采用月面低空飞行模式。本文研究为未来载人登月月面大范围探测积累技术基础,提供技术支撑。

新型城镇化下干线公路接入管理对策研究

干线公路给城镇发展注入活力,成为城镇发展的先行军。但随着城镇发展,干线公路沿线城镇化,出现拥堵现象,对城镇发展的带动支撑作用减弱。文章从干线公路与城镇发展的关系入手,分析干线公路的功能演变,针对城镇干线公路的接入道路选择、接入口布局及沿线土地开发管理,结合接入实际案例进行有针对性的研究。明确接入道路的选择,提出干线公路—接入段—城镇道路三者的车道数应该相匹配等结论。对城镇长期发展以及干线公路的功能发挥具有一定的参考意义。

矿山开采沉陷专题信息表达新模式

针对矿山开采沉陷所引发的地表形变信息表达和准确制图问题,该文结合遥感影像与地形图等数据,基于矿区开采沉陷变形预计结果和三维可视化方法,对矿山开采沉陷专题信息表达及其GIS制图新模式进行了探究。实现了矿区地表下沉、水平移动、水平变形、倾斜和曲率的形变信息应用分析与可视化,以及下沉盆地水淹范围模拟图、三维地表变形影像图、特定区域变形分析图、采动损坏等级分布图等制图功能。

新疆地区遥感、融合和陆面模式模拟的蒸散产品的不确定性分析

蒸散是干旱区水资源消耗的主要方式,由于该地区地表植被覆盖稀疏且空间异质性较大,目前国际常用的众多蒸散产品的结果存在较大差异。故选取中分辨率成像光谱仪（MOD16）蒸散产品、全球陆地蒸散阿姆斯特丹模型（global land evapotranspiration amsterdam model,GLEAM）和通用陆面模式（common land model,Co LM）的蒸散产品为代表,利用三角帽（three cornered hat,TCH）方法定量评价3种蒸散产品在新疆干旱区模拟结果的空间不确定性。结果表明：GLEAM和MOD16蒸散产品的空间分布规律相似,山区蒸散值均显著高于平原区;Co LM在阿尔泰山、天山蒸散值显著高于平原区。此外,全疆多年平均蒸散值分别为：GLEAM[（142.36±11.11）mm·a^-1]、Co LM[（126.66±19.12）mm·a^-1]、MOD16[（78.64±4.61）mm·a^-1]。基于TCH方法的全疆蒸散模拟的不确定性结果大小依次为：Co LM（24.18 mm·a^-1）,GLEAM蒸散产品（21.58 mm·a^-1）,MOD16蒸散产品（17.66 mm·a^-1）。在灌丛,山地半干旱区和山地半湿润区,3种蒸散产品的不确定性显著不同,其中Co LM不确定性最大（33.47 mm·a^-1、30.46 mm·a^-1、32.11 mm·a^-1）,MOD16不确定性最小（9.50 mm·a^-1、14.80 mm·a^-1、14.34 mm·a^-1）。量化新疆地区蒸散的不确定性为更加准确估算该地区的蒸散有着重要的科学意义。

Applicability Assessment of the 1998–2018 CLDAS Multi-Source Precipitation Fusion Dataset over China

Traditional hourly rain gauges and automatic weather stations rarely measure solid precipitation, except for those stations with weighing-type precipitation sensors. Microwave remote sensing has only a low ability to retrieve solid precipitation. In addition, there are no long-term, high-quality precipitation data in China that can be used to drive land surface models. To address these issues, in the China Meteorological Administration(CMA) Land Data Assimilation System(CLDAS), we blended the Climate Prediction Center(CPC) morphing technique(CMORPH) and Modern-Era Retrospective analysis for Research and Applications version 2(MERRA2) precipitation datasets with observed temperature and precipitation data on various temporal scales using multigrid variational analysis and temporal downscaling to produce a multi-source precipitation fusion dataset for China(CLDAS-Prcp). This dataset covers all of China at a resolution of 6.25 km at hourly intervals from 1998 to 2018. We performed dependent and independent evaluations of the CLDAS-Prcp dataset from the perspectives of seasonal total precipitation and land surface model simulation. Our results show that the CLDAS-Prcp dataset represents reasonably the spatial distribution of precipitation in China. The dependent evaluation indicates that the CLDAS-Prcp performs better than the MERRA2 precipitation, CMORPH precipitation, Global Land Data Assimilation System version 2(GLDAS-V2.1) precipitation,and CLDAS-V2.0 winter precipitation, as compared to the meteorological observational precipitation. The independent evaluation indicates that the CLDAS-Prcp dataset performs better than the Global Precipitation Measurement(GPM) precipitation dataset and is similar to the CLDAS-V2.0 summer precipitation dataset based on the hydrological observational precipitation. The simulated soil moisture content driven by CLDAS-Prcp is slightly better than that driven by the CLDAS-V2.0 precipitation, whereas the snow depth simulation driven by CLDAS-Prcp is much better than that driven by the CLDAS-V2.0 precipitation. This is because the CLDAS-Prcp data have included solid precipitation. Overall, the CLDAS-Prcp dataset can meet the needs of land surface and hydrological modeling studies.