A Brief Analysis of the Non-commercial Forest Compensation System in China

The non-commercial forest is an important natural resource protecting the environment and contributing to the sustainable development of a nation. Due to its crucial positive external effects, it is inevitable policy that non-commercial forestry should be invested by government, thereby formulates the non-commercial forestry compensation system. This paper first discusses the theoretical basis of non-commercial forestry compensation system and the process of establishment of non-commercial forestry compensation system in China, and then analyzes the deficiency in the current compensation system.

Empirical Analysis of Factors Influencing Compensation for Non-commercial Forests under CVM

Based on non-commercial forests in Kunming City,this article conducts survey of 506 households in Kunming City to evaluate their willingness to pay ecological benefit of non-commercial forests,using Contingent Valuation Method(CVM);to analyze factors influencing their willingness to compensate for non-commercial forests,using multivariate statistical analysis method.The results show that income,educational level, housing ownership,outdoor exercise time,whether to be concerned about environmental problems,frequency of obtaining forest-related information monthly and whether understanding non-commercial forests or not,are the most principal factors influencing willingness to pay.

A Study on Compensation for Management and Protection Expenses of Non-commercial Forests

This paper analyzes the compensation nature of non-commercial forests under different ownership from two aspects, namely, whether the property right is limited and whether the management and protection expense has been incurred: there are no economic loss compensation problems caused by changes and limitation of property rights for the state-owned non-commercial forests with only the compensation on management and protection expense; but for the non-commercial forests owned by collectives or individuals, double compensation for both the economic loss and management expense exists because of limitation on the property right. In addition, an inframarginal economic analysis framework has been built for the management and protection compensation problems faced by non-commercial forests under different ownership in the perspective of the division of labor. Research results show that: the compensation standard for the management and protection expenses of non-commercial forests shall fall in between the "completely self-sufficient forestry economic structure U(Ayz)" and the "completely specialized productive structure of non-commercial forests U(B1)".

Comparison of Bacterial Cross-Contamination among Broiler Carcasses between Commercial and Non-Commercial Processed System and Its Public Health Implications

Objectives: This study aimed to conduct a comparative assessment of bacterial cross-contamination in commercial and non-commercial processing plants including associated risk factors for bacterial contamination. Study Design: This was analytic cross sectional survey on bacterial contamination of broiler carcasses between different processing systems. Introduction: Zambia, like most African and Asian Countries, still practices “live-open non-commercial broiler carcass processing systems” besides the “closed abattoir based systems”. However, shelf life, spoilage and hygiene levels have been postulated to vary based on the type of processing system. Live-open non-commercial processing systems are popular among majority consumers owing to their perceived “freshness”, compared to commercially dressed chickens. In between, consumers have to balance freshness and quality assurance. Ultimately, this becomes inert, remotely but an important public health issue. However, lack of empirical evidence on safety levels to guide consumer product selection leaves them to speculation. It is this need to close this gap that created an impetus for us to undertake this study. Methods: Biological samples were collected before carcass wash and after carcass wash alongside a structured questionnaire that gathered risk-associated data. Standard microbiological enumeration methods were used to isolate bacteria and enumerate contamination. Results: Broiler carcasses processed from “open” non-commercial systems were more contaminated (45.6%) than “closed-abattoir” commercially processed systems (35%). Escherichia coli were major contaminants (71.3%) and few Salmonella spices (typhi or para-typhi) in 1.3%. Risk analysis indicates washing (method) of carcasses at commercial systems was significantly more risky for contamination than non-commercial ones. Major sources of contamination were “distance from water sources”. Increased volume of slaughters per day (>15,000 birds) for commercial systems accounted for increased cross-contamination, particularly, distance from water source was a ma-jor risk factor for contamination.

A Comparison of Three Surrogacy Agreement Cases Using AHP

This paper builds on the previous work of Knott, Ninassi and Eisenhardt＇s 2009 paper, ＂Using the Analytic Hierarchy Process （AHP） to Look at the Tradeoffs Among Stakeholders in the Case of Surrogacy, when the Initial Intention of the Parties Involved Change After the Pregnancy Has Ensued＂. This paper proposes a new methodology for analyzing cases involving stakeholders in disputed surrogacy arrangement. The methodology utilized is the Analytic Hierarchy Process, which allows users to weigh different criteria based on their own opinions and background. Three case studies involved a surrogacy arrangement among three stakeholders： the biological mother, the biological father and the surrogate mother. The base for the model was that all parties had entered into an agreement, and that after the agreement had been made, a situation changed, such that a decision as to who had parental rights over the fetus became an issue. The criteria used in the decision making process in the three case studies were legal, health and ethical. The criteria differed based upon each stakeholder＇s point of view. In this paper, the three models were developed using the AI-tP methodology and judgments were gathered for each of the three cases to derive the priorities for the criteria in each model. Each author took the role of one of the three stakeholders.

论代孕及其行为的公法规制

规范代孕行为应厘清“代孕”内涵并对其所关涉的价值取向作权衡,在遵循公序良俗与顺应时代需求上予以综合考量和评价,明确向符合特定条件的夫妻双方有限开放代孕,并将其纳入公法规制,以公权力保障代孕行为的有序开展,方能最终实现公民权利和社会秩序的统一,实现对生育权更全面的保障。

论跨境代孕中公共秩序保留制度的适用

一国对跨境代孕的法律态度体现的是本国或者本民族所维护的公共利益和价值追求,因此跨境代孕问题的处理实际是公共秩序在法律多元化环境下的正确适用。而公共秩序保留制度因在跨境代孕中存在适用范围模糊、适用标准不一等问题,在司法实践中常有被“滥用”的情况,严重损害了代孕儿童权益。为回应国际社会对公共秩序保留限制性适用的强烈要求,各国应将保护儿童权益作为处理代孕儿童相关事务的出发点,通过明确公共秩序的效力适用范围、统一其适用标准及深化对其谨慎适用的司法实践,以达至儿童权益与公共秩序间的利益平衡。

道德的法律强制与代孕规制的可能限度

以非商业完全代孕为标准评估模型,基于社会合作的基本特征,可以得出代孕的合理性。非商业代孕的反对者有故意夸大代孕的损害风险和伦理风险的嫌疑。即便如此,生殖能力的运用方式与人们所重视的关系或规划关联密切,应该得到法律的重视和回应。商业代孕因其商业属性会逼迫人们在这一问题上做选择,并试图改变人们的生活方式,更容易带来额外风险,而非商业完全代孕因为其审慎且精细化的处理方式而应该被允许。法律对代孕的态度不一定是“全有”或“全无”的关系,在形式上允许而在内容上严格限制是其中较为合理的方案。

中国法下代孕亲子关系认定规则探究——以跨国实践为视角

跨国生殖旅游为有生育困难的夫妇提供实施代孕的可能性,但也带来诸如父母身份的认定困难、代孕子女的公民身份问题及社会福利、家庭关系和儿童发展等社会问题。境外司法机构在实践中强调基因、儿童利益等要素,但忽视婚姻家庭在其中的重要性。子代利益与生育伦理之间的冲突,凸显构建现代家庭关系所面临的隐忧,需要认识到亲子关系是维护婚姻家庭关系的环节。在确定代孕子女法定父母的身份时,应区分并尊重基因母亲和分娩母亲的法律地位,但应以“基因加婚生推定”的原则来确定监护人的身份。这样可以确保代孕子女的法律地位,并实现保护儿童利益与维护家庭关系的双重目的。

我国代孕问题的“无法可依”与规制思路

我国于21世纪初颁布的《人类辅助生殖技术管理办法》,主要是针对代孕技术给传统道德、伦理及法律带来的严峻挑战而实施的部门规章,以此来表明国家对代孕技术的抑制态度。但该法在司法实践中并没有发挥出应有作用,沦为“僵尸条文”,究其原因:一为效力位阶较低;二为适用对象有限。目前,我国代孕问题处于“无法可依”状态,为恶意代孕提供了可乘之机。鉴于此,应尽快将代孕问题归置于法治领域,合理合法运用科技为人类造福。

英国代孕规制:历史进展和未解决的问题

英国法律委员会在2023年的报告中提出了代孕规制的“新途径”,对于代孕协议能否强制执行的问题进行了详尽的讨论,并总结出两种可行建议,即代孕协议“规范但不可执行”说或“部分可强制执行”说。但该报告仍未就是否允许商业代孕提出确定建议,需要进一步探讨。基于英国经验,可考虑制定专门的法律法规规制代孕,规定监督机构与管理流程。借鉴代孕有限性合法化模式,排除商业代孕和非生理障碍性代孕。在亲子认定关系问题上,参考英国的“父母令”程序分情况讨论,基因代孕遵循分娩者为母原则,妊娠代孕考虑推定预期父母为合法父母原则。

论商业性代孕的刑法规制

代孕作为人类辅助生殖技术发展的副产物,一直备受争议。在应否运用刑法规制代孕的问题上,学界存在赞成说、反对说两种截然不同的学说,反对说总体上居于主导地位。刑法介入商业性代孕规制具有充分的正当性。刑法介入商业性代孕不仅是刑法自身的使命担当,也是法律保障人性的必然要求,还是域外刑事立法应对代孕的普遍经验,更是弥补我国已有规制手段不足的客观选择。代孕具有明显的社会危害性,但我国还没有将代孕入刑,致使刑法在应对商业性代孕方面捉襟见肘。在我国已经穷尽了其他规制手段仍无法阻止商业性代孕泛滥的情势下,运用刑法对代孕施以规制已经成为必要选择。目前,人们对非商业性代孕应否被禁止还没有找到社会最大公约数,将社会危害性更为严重的商业性代孕入刑,应当成为我国刑法规制代孕的基本立场。为此,需要在我国刑法中明确增设有关商业性代孕的相关罪名及其刑事责任。对于非商业性代孕行为,则可以考虑暂时不入刑而使用其他法律调整。

黑格尔承认伦理视域下代孕的社会风险探究

代孕在当前所引发的诸多纷争,最终都可以归结为伦理问题,代孕本质上是一种背离伦理精神的行为。基于黑格尔承认伦理的视角,代孕引发社会风险的根源在于承认伦理的缺失与冲突:承认伦理的缺失体现在委托方与代孕母的关系之中;承认伦理的冲突则体现在代孕母与子女的关系之中。代孕社会风险的化解必须从伦理入手,使人们在精神层面自觉抵制代孕行为的发生;相关法律的制定也必须以伦理精神为基准,最终实现法律与伦理的统一。

代孕子女监护人确定的司法应对

代孕子女监护人确定是为保障代孕所生子女能享有法律规定的一切基本权利。当前,我国法律对代孕子女监护存有立法空白,导致法院在认定代孕子女监护归属时依据和判决说理各有不同。为此,我们应从严禁代孕、有限开放代孕、允许代孕三个维度借鉴国外相关经验,完善我国对代孕子女监护的法律规定。在落实儿童利益最佳原则并弥补现有监护制度适用不足的同时,给予弃养、残障代孕儿童特殊司法保护,以期促进代孕子女监护人确定的司法效能,解决新型社会纠纷。

打击代孕的治理困境、实践及思考——以上海市杨浦区为例

文章基于杨浦区打击代孕执法经验,通过现场调研、资料分析、专家访谈,分析代孕行政监管中的重点难点,并从建立多部门、多地区联动机制、应用技术执法手段、加大宣传力度和惩戒力度以及健全立法层面提出对策建议。

代孕监护权路径的重置与展开

代孕作为辅助生殖技术的延伸,冲击着道德伦理,带来了一系列法律与社会层面上的挑战。其中,由代孕子女亲子关系模糊所带来的监护权归属问题尤为突出。目前,我国仍以“血缘”为中心,结合“分娩”和“契约”路径确定亲子监护权的归属,这一路径不仅无法适应多元化的生殖现状,更不利于代孕子女利益的保护。因此,本文试图以“监护意愿为中心+兼顾监护抚养能力+代孕子女真实表示”的模式确定代孕子女监护权的归属,并尝试从建立健全相关法律法规、明确代孕子女的监护归属、推进司法类案统一、加大打击和惩处力度等方面探寻解决路径,以保障代孕子女的合法权益。

跨国代孕儿童的身份权益保护之困境与破解

各国或各地区法律规定的差异致跨国代孕案件中法律冲突频发、亲子关系认定遭遇种种困境、进而给代孕儿童身份权益保障埋下隐患,鉴此部分欧洲国家在司法实务中采用了儿童最大利益原则,为代孕儿童身份权益的保护提供了新思路。我国可在继续坚持禁止代孕的前提下,在立法中引入儿童最大利益原则,做到区分代孕与代孕儿童,完善我国亲子关系立法和认定规则,限制公共秩序保留的援引,以更好地为跨国代孕儿童的身份权益保护提供法律保障。

代孕中的公正

代孕是人类辅助生殖技术的一种,其在给人类带来莫大福音的同时,也给社会带来了诸多的伦理争议。这些伦理争议的相持不下,在很大程度上限制了代孕的发展。公正作为社会普遍追求的一种价值理念和行为准则,可以说是一种普世的伦理道德。以此为切入点,分析代孕中的公正问题,为代孕寻找到其在伦理学上的正当性依据——公正。

台湾地区“代孕”立法最新进展及其启示

2007年3月21日,台湾地区在广泛调研、民主决策的基础上,终于颁布实施了《人工生殖法》,使争论已久的代孕人工生殖问题与《人工生殖法》正式脱钩,另行规制;此前,《代孕人工生殖法》草案也已经出笼,拟有条件开放代孕人工生殖。相关草案对代孕者、受术夫妻、代孕中介、代孕契约、亲子关系等问题都进行了具体规定。台湾地区的立法经验对祖国大陆完善包括代孕在内的人工生殖法具有一定的借鉴意义。

美、英、法代孕法律规制的伦理思考

代孕,自从其问世以来便饱受伦理争议。应当一禁了之还是包容开放?如何规范才是最佳抉择?以美、英、法为代表的世界各国对代孕采取了不同的法律态度,其伴随的伦理法律问题已不容回避。从分析美、英、法三国的代孕法律规制出发,指出其伦理难题,结合实际,提出法与伦理的结合是规范代孕的必由之路。