The effect of self-employment on health, access to care, and health behavior

The focus of this paper is to investigate the role self-employment conceptualized as a lifestyle factor on health, access to health care, and health behaviors. We analyze rich data on 13,435 working adults in the US, who are either selfemployed or salaried workers. Outcomes include physical and mental health perception, validated indexes of physical and mental health, and medical conditions;access-to-care measures such as a barrier to obtaining necessary health care;and health behaviors such as smoking, physical activity and body mass index. Instrumental variables methods are used to correct for selection into self-employment. We find that self-employment is positively associated with perceived physical health, and is negatively associated with having diabetes, high blood pressure, high cholesterol and arthritis. No mental health outcome is significantly associated with self-employment. There is no significant difference between self-employed and wage-earning individuals with regard to access to care. Self-employed individuals are less likely to smoke, and are more likely to participate in physical activity and have normal-weight. We conclude that despite lack of health insurance, self-employed persons in the US are as healthy as wage-earners, do not experience a greater barrier to access to care, and are more likely to engage in healthy behavior.

The impact and heterogeneity analysis of digital financial inclusion on non-farm employment of rural labor

This study examines the effects of digital financial inclusion on non-farm employment of rural labor and the mediating mechanism of innovation and entrepreneurship activity using China Family Panel Studies(CFPS)and the provincial index of digital financial inclusion.Through the empirical test of the Probit model and mediation effect model,we found that:firstly,digital financial inclusion can promote non-farm employment of rural labor,with the level of digitalization having the most significant impact;secondly,by encouraging innovation and entrepreneurial activity,digital financial inclusion can promote non-farm employment of rural labor;thirdly,the driving effect of digital financial inclusion on non-farm employment of rural labor is more pronounced among the unmarried,eastern region,and male labor.Therefore,we should improve the construction of rural digital infrastructure and accelerate the development of inclusive rural finance to promote more diversified non-farm employment options for“disadvantaged groups”;encourage and support innovation at the government level,and create a favorable atmosphere for innovation and entrepreneurship.Simultaneously,farmers’digital literacy and financial knowledge should be improved so that more can adopt and take advantage of digital financial inclusion.

Risk Attitudes and Self-employment in China

Using the 2006 wave of the Chinese General Social Survey, the present paper examines the effect of risk attitudes on the likelihood of entrepreneurship in China. Our results show that risk attitudes have a nonlinear effect on the likelihood of being entrepreneurs. Risk neutral people are most likely to be entrepreneurs, while both risk averse and risk seeking people prefer to work for wages. When we further divide entrepreneurs into necessity and opportunity entrepreneurs, we find only a marginal difference in risk attitudes between wage workers and necessity entrepreneurs, while less risk averse individuals tend to be opportunity entrepreneurs. Our results have important poliey implications for the government ＂s efforts to promote entrepreneurial activities.

Impact of livelihood diversification of rural households on their ecological footprint in agro-pastoral areas of northern China

Human-environment relationship is a focus of academic researches and an understanding of the rela- tionship is important for making effective policies and decisions. In this study, based on rural household survey data of Taibus Banner, Duolun county and Zhengxiangbai Banner in the Inner Mongolia autonomous region of China, we identified the impact of livelihood diversification on ecosystems in these agro-pastoral areas by using the ecological footprint theory and methodology together with the one-way analysis of variance （ANOVA） and correlation analysis methods. In 2011, the total ecological footprint of consumption （EFC） was 0.665 g hm2, and the total ecological footprint of production （EFP） was 2.045 g hm2, which was more than three times the EFC. The ecological footprint of arable land consumption （EFAC） accounted for a large proportion of the EFC, and the ecological footprint of grassland production （EFGP） occupied a large proportion of the EFP. Both the ecological footprint of grassland consumption （EFGC） and EFGP had a significant positive correlation with the income, indicating that income was mainly depended on livestock production and the households with higher incomes consumed more livestock prod- ucts. The full-time farming households （FTFHs） had the highest EFP, ecological footprint of arable land production （EFAP）, EFGP and EFGC, followed by the part-time farming households （PTFHs） and non-farming households （NFHs）, which indicated that part-time farming and non-farming employment reduced the occupancy and con- sumption of rural households on local ecosystems and natural resources to some extent. When farming households engaged in livestock rearing, both the EFAP and EFAC became smaller, while the EFP, EFC, EFGC and EFGP increased significantly. The differences in ecological footprints among different household groups should be taken into account when making ecosystem conservation policies. Encouraging the laborers who have the advantages of participating in non-farming employment to move out of the rural areas and increasing the diversification of liveli- hoods of rural households are important in reducing the environmental pressures and improving the welfare of households in the study area. Moreover, grassland should be utilized more effectively in the future.

Determinants of Self-employment in China:Evidence from Cross-regional Data

This paper presents and tests a series of sources of regional variations in self-employment rate in China in the 2000s, and illustrates that the stage of economic development is a major explanation for the variations of self-employment rate across regions over the past decade. The negative relationship between the stage of economic development and self-employment rate identified in the paper indicates that China has entered the process offast industrialization, and self-employment is playing a diminishing role in economic growth and employment. We also find a substitution effect between self-employment and private enterprises. While both are important components of China ＇s private sector, private enterprises are becoming an increasingly important source of China＇s economic growth and employment. Furthermore, our findings also imply that when job opportunities are limited, self-employment in China is likely a forced choice of disadvantaged people who are not qualified for wage jobs.

Self-employment in Rural China:Its Development,Characteristics,and Relation to Income

Changes in the employment structure in rural China were studied with a focus on off-farm self-employment.Data from the Chinese Household Income Project surveys were used,covering the same 14 provinces from 1988 to 2018.We found that the proportion of adults in rural China with self-employment as their primary form of off-farm employment increased from only 2 percent in 1988 to 11 percent in 2013,with no further increases through 2018.In 1988 and 1995,the rate of self-employment was highest in the eastern region but this regional pattern subsequently disappeared.The probability of being self-employed in rural China was higher among married males than among unmarried persons.Having a migration experience increased the likelihood of being self-employed.Since 1995,self-employed households have had a higher average income than other categories of household.Based on estimates of income functions,we conclude that the income premium from being self-employed increased rapidly from 1988 to 1995 to become remarkably large when only a few adults were self-employed.However,as a larger fraction of the rural population entered self-employment,the payoff from being self-employed has rapidly diminished,although it was still substantial in 2018.

Self-employment in Urban China:Entrepreneurship or Disguised Unemployment?

To explore the mechanism of entry to the self-employed sector in urban China,this study tested two hypotheses:the entrepreneurship hypothesis and the disguised unemployment hypothesis,investigating the impact of mass entrepreneurship and innovation policies on business start-ups.Three main findings emerged.First,the entrepreneurship hypothesis was rejected for both local urban residents and migrants in 2013 but was supported for both groups in 2018.Second,the causality relationship between mass entrepreneurship and innovation policies and business starts-ups was not significant.Third,the results differed by group.The entrepreneurship hypothesis was supported for the younger generation of migrants in 2018 but was clearly rejected for the less educated,both in the local urban resident and migrant groups in 2013 and 2018.Robustness checks confirmed these conclusions.

Rural transformation,income growth,and poverty reduction by region in China in the past four decades

China has experienced rapid rural transformation in the past four decades.Accompanying the rapid transformation is a significant rise in rural household income and a substantial fall in rural poverty.This paper examines the evolutions of and the relationships between rural transformation(high-value agriculture and rural non-farm employment)and its outcomes(per capita rural income and rural poverty incidence)using provincial-level data.The results show that 31 provinces/autonomous regions/municipalities have undergone significant rural transformation,but the level and speed of rural transformation differed considerably.Moreover,an increased level of rural transformation is often associated with higher per capita rural income and reduced rural poverty incidence.Notably,a category of provincial rural transformation based on high-value agriculture and rural non-farm employment is also analyzed.We further discuss the likely impacts of institutions,policies,and investments(IPIs)on rural transformation and conclude with policy implications.

Regional rural transformation and its association with household income and poverty incidence in Indonesia in the last two decades

Increasing rural household income and reducing poverty rank among Indonesia’s top development priorities.Promoting rural transformation is one strategic policy framework to achieve these goals.In the last three decades,agricultural production has shifted from low-value food crops to high-value commodities,such as horticulture,estate crops,and livestock.Previous studies have analyzed rural transformation in Indonesia at the national level,but information on the magnitudes of impact across regions remains scarce.This study aims to analyze the changes in rural transformation at a regional level in the past two decades.The research utilizes secondary data from Statistics Indonesia(BPS),covering 34 provinces from 2000 to 2020,analyzed using descriptive and panel data regression analyses.The results show an increasing trend in the share of high-value agriculture(RT_(1))and rural non-farm employment(RT_(2)).Both RT_(1)and RT_(2)are positively associated with the growth of rural household income and a lower poverty rate.However,the speed of structural transformation(ST),RT_(1),RT_(2),rural income growth,and poverty reduction vary across regions.This research implies that improving rural income and reducing poverty should be done by integrating policies,i.e.,promoting highvalue agriculture and expanding rural non-farm employment.Particular attention should also be given to provinces with slow growth in ST,RT_(1),RT_(2),and rural household income.

Inclusive Finance,Income Gaps and Common Prosperity

According to the Report to the 20^(th) CPC National Congress,delivering common prosperity for all the people is an intrinsic requirement of Chinese modernization.Based on China Household Finance Survey(CHFS)data from 2015 to 2019,this study examines the effects of inclusive finance on China’s household income disparities and demonstrates how inclusive finance contributes to shared prosperity.Our empirical research reveals that inclusive finance has significantly decreased the income disparities between Chinese households.Inclusive finance has significantly increased the income levels of households below the 40^(th) percentile,making it more likely for them to move above the 40^(th) percentile of incomes,which is conducive to delivering common prosperity.Our analysis indicates that inclusive finance will reduce income disparities by assisting low-income households in starting a business and by promoting rural household employment.Reflecting its inclusive nature,further investigation reveals that inclusive finance has a greater positive impact on the income level of vulnerable households.Our research offers new evidence for comprehending the role of inclusive finance and a new interpretation of income disparities,with policy implications for accelerating Chinese modernization.

Food Security through Community Food Bank and Employment Generation： A Study in the North-Eastern Bangladesh

About twenty percent people in Bangladesh are poor and ultra-poor, and they face severe food insecurity every year. Since food deficit is a recurring phenomenon especially in the northern area of Bangladesh, due to scarcity of jobs in agriculture dilring the lean period, there is a necessity for creating employment opportunities in non-crop agriculture and off-farm services. This action research program is therefore planned and offered skill development training in different trades to the target beneficiaries in the study area for employment generation. It is observed from the field survey that introduction of self-employment opportunities of the poor farmers by conducting skill development training program in different income generating economic activities enabling them to acquire necessary skills, and helping them to choose self-employment in off-farm sectors. In addition, education and advocacy programs also helped them to ensure food security by depositing their money/foods in a community food bank aiming to use during crisis period.

Determinants of Household Choice of Livelihood Diversification Strategies in Selected Drought Prone Areas of the Southern Nations Nationalities and Peoples’ Region, Ethiopia

The study aimed at identifying the determinants of household’s choice of livelihood diversification strategies. The result of the study based on a total of 384 sample respondents selected using multistage sampling procedures. Furthermore the study employed bivariate Probit econometric model to identify factors affecting household’s choice of livelihood diversification strategies. The result of the descriptive statistics showed that households in the study area were engaged in four types of combination of livelihood diversification strategies: on-farm only, on-farm plus off-farm, on-farm plus non-farm, and on-farm plus off-farm plus non-farm with their respective share of 34.9, 11.5, 47.9 and 5.7 percent respectively. The econometric model result showed that wealth, sex, education level, livestok holding, and training were negatively and significantly determined households choice of off-farm livelihood strategies;whereas past erosion hazard and distance to market were positively and significantly determined their choice of off-farm livelihood strategies. On the other hand, wealth, dependency ratio, past erosion hazard, market availability, yield loss/reduction due to drought, distance to credit source, distance to market, frequency of extension contact, and ICT ownership (Radio, TV and/or Mobile phone) positively determine household’s choice of non-farm livelihood strategies whereas access to irrigation and distance to credit negatively determined their choice of non-farm livelihood strategies.

Gender Equality in Northern Province Hospitality Sector in Sri Lanka

The term ＂gender equality＂ describes the equal valuing of the different characters assumed by male and female. At present in Northern part of Sri Lanka, there is huge improvement in the field of hospitality. Nowadays, gender equality is very important in every workforce especially in the hospitality sector. Many countries are accepting the gender equality. After the ethnic war in Northern Province Tamil people without any discrimination, male and female are taking part in the field of hospitality. The main reasons for this change are economical breakdown and the interest of people towards hospitality field. There are more than 10 women staffs working in the hotel industry in the Northern part of Sri Lanka. The hospitality industry helps the women staffs to balance their families. Because Northern Province has many women leadership families. Most of the female workers （Captain of the families） are working as cleaning staff, front office assistance, assistance managers, managers, and training instructors in the Northern Province hotel sector. According to the authors＇ field visit, Northern Province hospitality sectors provide some security service for the female staffs such as hostel arrangements, no night shift works, and high security inside the hotel. The Northern Province hospitality outlet not only hotels but also catering service, self-employments such as sweets delivery for the fimctions and food cooking for the parties, house works are done by both genders because after the war, many families are affected by the economic poverty. According to the authors＇ data collection, more than 200 families are doing the self-employment jobs such as catering service for the parties, food issuing for the university students, sweets issuing for the functions. Female staffs are able to work with the good mentality as they come to the working field. Though there are educated people in Northern part of Sri Lanka, only a few are qualified in this particular field. Nevertheless, at present many Northern Province female students are studying hospitality degree at University College of Jaffna. They come from different districts, mostly from Northern Province. The women hoteliers are not only capable in front office but they are also able to work in human resource department, account department, kitchen department, housekeeping department and security service department. At last, it is noted that hospitality is the key factor in the long-lasting sustainability of the economic system of the Northern part of Sri Lanka. In the future, the Northern part of Sri Lanka hospitality sector will improve a lot without any gender discrimination, because at present, the students are studying hospitality degree for their great future. It is a sustainable activity for the Northern Province hospitality sector without gender discrimination.

Bangladesh Economic Development Model （BED Model）

Bangladesh economy has experienced some stable growths with regard to major macroeconomic indicators, significant progress in social development indicators, rural infrastructure, investment in industrial agricultural sector, and poverty alleviation since the 1990s. Bangladesh has made major strides in its human development index （HDI）, population growth rate achieved to 1.3%, gross domestic product （GDP） over the last five years achieved more than 5% growth consecutively; as a result, it mooted the Brazil, Russia, India, China （BRIC） successors, otherwise known as the Next-11. The success has come through the miracle activities of micro finance （MF： Grameen Bank and non-governmental organizations （NGOs））, remittance from migrant worker （RMW）, and export of readymade garment （ERMG） products. These three （MF, RMW, and ERMG） as the ＂prime powers＂ or engines have been achieving to ＂bottom up＂ of social economic development. This paper reviews aspects of economic development in Bangladesh, analyzes three prime powers, and tries to find out a development pattern, vis-a-vis construct Bangladesh economic development model or BED model. Finally, this paper examines Bangladesh＇s development experience in light of the BED model. It has recognized MF model for poverty alleviation in the worldwide.

Impacts of Non-farm Employment of Rural Laborers on Agricultural Land Use:Theoretical Analysis and Its Policy Implications

During rapid urbanization and industrialization process, non-farm employment of rural laborers has emerged as a prevalent phenomenon in rural areas of China and become an important driving factor for changes in agricultural land use. This article attempts to theoretically analyze the impacts of non-farm employment of rural laborers on agricultural land use based on economic frameworks. As rational agents, farmers aim to maximize their income and follow equilibrium principles when they decide how to allocate their labor forces（or working time） in two departments（farm and non-farm） and how to use their agricultural land with different quality and location. The income earned by non-farm employment is higher, and there exists a comparative advantage between labors, as a result the quantity and quality of labor input in agricultural land use decreases. With the limitation of labor input during agricultural land use decision-making of farm households, on the one hand, land with higher quality is still utilized by farmers. On the other hand, poor quality land will be less well managed and is more likely to be abandoned. Non-farm employment of rural laborers and the rising of opportunity costs will result in abandonment of poor quality land, and great importance should be attached to this by policy makers.

Agricultural Land Use Intensity and Its Determinants in Ecologically-vulnerable Areas in North China:A Case Study of Taipusi County,Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region

Based on rural household survey data in Taipusi County in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, this article analyzes agricultural land use intensity and its determinants. The results reveal marked differences of agricultural land use intensity among households with different ages of householders, proportion of non-farm participants, total agricultural land area, land fragmentation and land utilization capacity. （i） Households with older householders and households with a smaller proportion of non-farming laborers generally spend more time on managing their land and invest less capital and materials than other households. The proportion of non-farming laborers within younger households is relatively high, and they tend to invest more capital and materials because the income derived from non-farm employment relaxes their financial constraints. （ii） Land fragmentation is an important determinant of land use intensity. Households with a bigger land size per plot usually spend less time and invest more capital and materials on their land; （iii） Land with better quality is usually managed intensively. The results suggest that labor has become an important constraint for local agricultural production, and there is the potential to improve land management scale and increase machinery input to substitute for labor. Furthermore, the effects of non-farm employment on land use intensity indicate that the establishment of a coordination mechanism between non-farm employment and agricultural land use is an important way to solve the conflict between ecological security and agricultural production in ecologically-vulnerable areas.

Gender and Off-farm Employment： Evidence from Rural China

The goal of the present paper is to examine how the expansion of the economy from 2000 has affected rural off-farm labor market participation. Specifically, we seek to determine whether off-farm labor increased after 2000, what forms of employment are driving trends in off-farm labor and whether gender differences can be observed in off- farm employment trends. Using a nationally representative dataset that consist of two waves of surveys conducted in 2000 and 2008 in six provinces, this paper finds that off- farm labor market participation continued to rise steadily in the early 2000s. However, there is a clear difference in the trends associated with occupational choice before and after 2000. In addition, we find that rural oy^farm employment trends are diffbrent for men and women. Our analysis also shows that the rise of wage-earning employment corresponds with an increasing unskilled wage for both men and women.

SPECIAL ISSUE： MIGRANT WORKERS IN THE COURSE OF URBANIZATION Migrant workers and informal employment

On the basis of an analysis of data collected through questionnaire surveys of migrant workers informally employed in Guangzhou or working in enterprises in the Pearl River Delta, the present paper suggests that： firstly, migrant workers as a whole are found in a ~ow-level labor market that is segmented and relatively segregated; its internal balance between demand and supply is realized, however, by following a principle of laissez-faire. Secondly, that market has further evolved into formal employment inside formal enterprises and informal employment outside of it, with the latter coveting the two types of self-employment and employment. Thirdly, owing to the rather difficult state of existence of those formally employed in enterprises, as well as to the ongoing reproduction of that kind of state of existence, migrant workers tend to join the informal branch in the split between formal and informal employment. Fourthly, while the work of those migrant workers in informal employment can only serve to eke out a miserable survival, those who are self-employed have a chance for gradual accumulation and upward movement, and so the hope for a certain development.