Distribution Regularity of Debris Flow and Its Hazard in Upper Reaches of Yangtze River and Other Rivers of Southwestern China

In the upper reaches of Yangtze River and other rivers of southwestern China, the debris flows develop and lead to most serious disasters because of the various landforms, complex geological structures and abundant rainfall. The distribution of debris flows has regularity in the regions with different landform, geological structure, and precipitation. The regularities of distribution of debris flows are as following： （1） distributed in transition belts of different morphologic regions; （2） distributed in the area with strong stream trenching; （3） distributed along fracture zones and seismic belts： （4） distributed in the area with abundant precipitation; （5） distribution of debris flow is azonal. The activity of abundant debris flows not only brings harm to Towns, Villages and Farmlands, Main Lines of Communication, Water-Power Engineering, Stream Channels etc., but also induces strong water and soil loss. According to the present status of debris flow prevention, the problems in disasters mitigation and soil conservancy are found out, and the key works are brought up for the future disasters prevention and soil conservancy.

The Disastrous 23 July 2009 Debris Flow in Xiangshui Gully, Kangding County, Southwestern China

On 23 July 2009, a catastrophic debris flows were triggered by heavy rainfall in Xiangshui gully, Kangding county, southwestern China. This debris flow originating shortly after a rainstorm with an intensity of 28 mm per hour transported a total volume of more than 480×103 m3 debris, depositing the poorly sorted sediment including boulders up to 2-3 m in diameter both onto an existing debris fans and into the river. Our primary objective for this study was to analyze the characteristics of the triggering rainfall and the debris supply conditions, and to estimate debris-flow volume, mean velocity, and discharge. A comparison with adjacent rain-gage records indicates that debris flows in this setting can be produced in response to as little as 17 mm/hour or 3.5 mm/10-minute of rainfall intensity with relatively lower amount of cumulative antecedent rainfall. The field measurement and the interpretation of the Worldview image indicate that abundant landslides occurred on steep slopes within areas underlain by highly weathered granite. Using empirical equations that combine flow depth and channel slope, the mean velocity and discharge of the debris flow were estimated to be 9.2 m/s and 2150 m3/s, respectively. The results contribute to a better understanding of the conditions leading to catastrophic debris flows.

Early Holocene High Magnitude Debris Flow Events and Environmental Change as Illustrated by the Moxi Platform, Hengduan Mountains, SW China

Thick debris flow deposits in the Hengduan Mountains of southwestern China record landscape instability at the close of the last glaciation and in the early Holocene. The deposits, ranging in thickness from 100 to 200 m, are common and in high magnitude in the valleys of this region. They are products of large debris flows induced by glacier and enabled by the presence of large amount of glacial debris on the landscape. The carbon 14 dating from Moxi Platform indicates that a period of catastrophic debris flows occurred at c. 7 kyr B.P., and was concurrent with other glacial-fluvial fans and terraces which tied to regional climatic oscillations elsewhere in the Himalaya. The comparable events suggest a strong climatic control on earth surface processes for the dynamics, magnitude, and frequency in this region.

Geomorphic Characteristics of Hillslope and Channelized Debris Flows: A Case Study in the Shitou Area of Central Taiwan

The data on the hillslope and channelized debris flows in the Shitou area of central Taiwan occurred during Typhoons Toraji and Nali in 2001 were applied in this paper. The geomorphic parameters, including the flow length, gully gradient, drainage area and form factor of the debris flows were determined by spatial analysis using a Geographic Information System (GIS) based on the data derived from field investigation, aerial photographs, and topographical maps. According to such determined geomorphic parameters, the threshold conditions and empirical equations, such as the relationship between the gully gradient and drainage area and that between gully length and drainage area and topographic parameter, are presented and used to distinguish the geomorphic characteristics between the channelized and hillslope debris flows.

Geomorphologic analysis and physico-dynamic characteristics of Zhatai-Gully debris flows in SW China

Zhatai gully is a typical debris flow channel in Butuo county of Sichuan province, southwestern China. The geomorphologic features are analyzed and the physical-dynamic characteristics are discussed on the basis of field investigation and laboratory tests. Geomorphologic analysis indicates that Zhatai-gully drainage in relation to debris flow can be divided into source area, transport area, and deposition area. The source area has a steep slope and has very limited vegetation cover, which favors runoff, allowing loose solid materials to be mobilized easily and rapidly. In the transport area, there are many small landslides, lateral lobes, and loose materials distributed on both banks. These landslides are active and constantly providing abundant source of soils for the debris flows. In the deposition area, three old debris-flow deposits of different ages can be observed. The dynamic calculation shows that within the recurrence intervals of 50 and lOO years, debris flow discharges are 155.77m^3/s and 178.19m^3/s and deposition volumes are 16.39 × 10^4 m^3 and 18.14 × 10^4 m^3, respectively. The depositional fan of an old debris flow in the outlet of the gully can be subdivided into six layers. There are three debris flow deposits on left and two on the right side of the gully. Grain-size tests of sediments from the soil, gulley bed deposits, and the fresh and old debris flow deposits showed that high amounts of clay and fine gravel were derived from the soil in the source area whereas much of the gravel fraction were sourced from the gully bed deposits. Comprehensive analysis indicates that Zhatai gully is viscous debris-flow gully with moderate to high frequency and moderate to large magnitude debris flows. The risk of a debris flow disaster in Zhatai-gully is moderate and poses a potential threat to the planned hydroelectric dam. Appropriate engineering measures are suggested in the construction and protection of the planned hydroelectric station.

Rainfall Factors in the Prediction of Rainfall-induced Debris Flow

Various rainfall factors,which affect the activities of rainfall-induced debris flow,are discussed in this paper.The factors include antecedent precipitation,current precipitation,rainfall duration,intensity,peak,and rainfall pattern.Rainfall-induced debris flow is trigged by the co-action of current rainfall and antecedent rainfall.The advanced system of precipitation monitoring and forecasting in the rainfall-induced debris flow forecast system is established,which consists of four methods-numerical weather prediction,stationary meteorological satellite,weather radar echo and automatic weather station.Since the forecast of rainfall-induced debris flow is based on the prediction of precipitation,the prediction models objectively require more detailed and precise prediction products,which put forward a new research subject for meteorologists.

Decomposition Analysis on Direct Material Input and Dematerialization of Mining Cities in Northeast China

Material dematerialization is a basic approach to reduce the pressure on the resources and environment and to realize the sustainable development. The material flow analysis and decomposition method are used to calculate the direct material input (DMI) of 14 typical mining cities in Northeast China in 1995–2004 and to analyze the demateri- alization and its driving factors in the different types of mining cities oriented by coal, petroleum, metallurgy and multi-resources. The results are as follows: 1) from 1995 to 2006, the increase rates of the DMI and the material input intensity of mining cities declined following the order of multi-resources, metallurgy, coal, and petroleum cities, and the material utilizing efficiency did following the order of petroleum, coal, metallurgy, and multi-resources cities; 2) during the research period, all the kinds of mining cities were in the situation of weak sustainable development in most years; 3) the pressure on resources and environment in the multi-resources cities was the most serious; 4) the petro- leum cities showed the strong trend of sustainable development; and 5) in recent years, the driving function of eco- nomic development for material consuming has continuously strengthened and the controlling function of material utilizing efficiency for it has weakened. The key approaches to promote the development of circular economy of min- ing cities in Northeast China are put forward in the following aspects: 1) to strengthen the research and development of the technique of resources’ cycling utilization, 2) to improve the utilizing efficiency of resources, and 3) to carry out the auditing system of resources utilization.

Site-specific Vulnerability Assessment for Debris Flows: Two Case Studies

Here the vulnerability is defined as the potential total maximum losses due to a debris flow damaging event for a specific debris flow fan. The vulnerability is classified into property vulnerability and population vulnerability. Assessment indexes include the assets of buildings, traffic facilities, lifeline works, personal properties, and land resources for property vulnerability; age, education, and wealth of the inhabitants, natural population growth rate, and population density for population vulnerability. The vulnerability is expressed as the sum of the transformed values of the losses of property and population. Two study cases with post-fact damages by historic debris flow events in Sichuan of SW China are presented.

The influence of human activity and precipitation change on mid-long term evolution of landslide and debris flow disasters

After defining landslide and debris flow, human activity, and precipitation indices, using with landslide and debris flow disaster data in low-latitude plateau of China, reflecting human activity and precipitation data, the influence of human activity and precipitation on mid-long term evolution of landslide and debris flow was studied with the wavelet technique. Results indicate that mid-long evolution of landslide and debris flow disaster trends to increase 0.9 unit every year, and presents obvious stage feature. The abrupt point from rare to frequent periods took place in 1993. There is significant in-phase resonance oscillation between human activity and landslide and debris flow frequency on a scale of 11-16 years, in which the variation of human activity occurs about 0.2-2.8 years before landslide and debris flow variation. Thus, the increase of landslide and debris flow frequency in low latitude plateau of China may be mainly caused by geo-environmental degradation induced by human activity. After the impact of human activity is removed, there is sig- nificant in-phase resonance oscillation between landslide and debris flow frequency and summer rainfall in low-latitude plateau of China in quasi-three-year and quasi-six-year scales, in which the variation of summer precipitation occurs about 0.0-0.8 years before landslide and debris flow variation. Summer precipitation is one of important external causes which impacts landslide and debris flow frequency in low-latitude plateau of China. The mid-long term evolution predicting model of landslide and debris flow disasters frequency in low-latitude plateau region with better fitting and predicting ability was built by considering human activity and summer rainfall.

Effectiveness analysis of the prediction of regional debris flow susceptibility in post-earthquake and drought site

Debris-flow disasters occurred frequently after the Mw 8.0 Wenchuan earthquake on 12 May 2008 in Sichuan Province, China. Based on historical accounts of debris-flow disaster events, it found that debris flow occurrence is closely related to the impact of earthquakes and droughts, because earthquakedrought activities can increase the loose solid materials, which can transform into debris flows under the effect of rainstorms. Based on the analysis of historical earthquake activity(frequency, magnitude and location), drought indexes and the trend of climate change(amount of rainfall), a prediction method was established, and the regional debris flow susceptibility was predicted. Furthermore, in a debris flow-susceptible site, effective warning and monitoring are essential not only from an economicpoint of view but are also considered as a frontline approach to alleviate hazards. The advantages of the prediction and early monitoring include(1) the acquired results being sent to the central government for policy making;(2) lives and property in mountainous areas can be protected, such as the 570 residents in the Aizi valley, who evacuated successfully before debris flows in 2012;(3) guiding the government to identify the areas of disasters and the preparation for disaster prevention and mitigation, such as predicting disasters in high-risk areas in the period 2012-2017, helping the government to recognize the development trend of disasters;(4) the quantitative prediction of regional debris-flow susceptibility, such as after the Wenchuan earthquake, can promote scientific and sustainable development and socioeconomic planning in earthquake-struck areas.

Geochemical survey of thermal system in Northeast China and their geothermometric characters

The chemical composition of several thermal springs around Changbaishan area has been investigated.Cenozoic basaltic rocks are widely distributed in Northeast China and geothermal characteristics have been described.About one hundred hot springs exist around Changbaishan Volcano at the border between China and D.P.R.Korea with high temperature about 82℃. The pH values of the spring water range from 6.9 to 7.1 and the total flow rate is about 4.8 L /sec. The chemical composition of the thermal springs is sodium carbonate; the high-mineral contents of thermal water are believed to have medicinal properties. Bathhouses are already built along the hot springs to take the advantage of the supposed healing properties. The high quality of those hot springs is believed to be utilitized for mineral water. The chemical equilibrium temperatures were estimated at about 160℃ based on the Na-K-Ca geochemical thermometer.

DEBRIS FLOW STUDIES IN CHINA IN THE LAST 30 YEARS

By summarizing the results of debris flow studies in China and integating with the knowledge and experience gained by the authors in their research work, thes paper makes a review and outlook on debris flow studies in China in the last 30 years. Corresponding opinions and suggestions are proposed in view of the circumstances and disasters in China.

基于生态系统服务流的东北地区水安全格局

基于供水服务“供流需”(供给流动需求)的研究思路构建水安全框架,采用水生态系统服务供需比测度水生态系统供需服务盈余和赤字状态,提取水生态“源”“汇”区,采用最小累计阻力模型识别“源汇”廊道和脆弱节点,进而分析东北地区水安全格局。结果表明:2000—2020年东北地区产水量和需水量均呈增加态势,空间上产水量大致呈东多西少分布,需水量的空间分布与人口密度、社会经济发展程度高度一致;整体而言,研究期内水生态系统供需服务主要表现为盈余状态,且盈余面积逐渐增加;水生态“源”区主要分布在东部及中部地区的耕地和林地,水生态“汇”区主要集中在西部地区的耕地、林地和未利用地;东北地区的水生态“源汇”廊道主要为松花江、绥芬河、辽河、图们江、大凌河、太子河等河流及其支流;辽宁中部、长春、哈尔滨等地多个供水节点较为脆弱,黑龙江中部的供水节点需要加强保护。

基于高分七号影像自动提取东北黑土区侵蚀沟的方法

东北黑土区沟蚀严重且分布面积广,目前对其进行监测大多基于目视解译,自动化程度低,急需一种快速提取方法。本文选取沟蚀严重的黑龙江省宾县马蛇子河流域,基于高分七号影像,以目视解译结果为参照,比较流向边缘检测、机器学习、深度学习3种方法自动提取侵蚀沟的精度。结果表明:①流向边缘检测方法依赖高精度地形数据,高分七号立体像对生成的地形数据垂直精度低,侵蚀沟整体提取精度仅为6.7%,无法用于切沟和浅沟的自动提取;②机器学习方法需要人为设置分割参数并设计分类特征,自动化程度较低,侵蚀沟整体提取精度可达50.7%,对切沟识别精度可达83.1%,但对浅沟识别精度仅为9.2%;③深度学习方法采用端对端的模式,无须人为设计特征提取器,自动化程度高,整体提取精度可达60.8%,对切沟识别精度可达68.1%,对浅沟识别精度可达69.7%。

我国西部某地区冲沟型泥石流特征及防治研究

泥石流是我国西部地区常见的一种地质灾害,其发育条件特殊,常伴有滑坡、崩塌等现象,其破坏性强,危害性大。我国西部某地区自然环境条件适宜泥石流发育,因此对该地区泥石流的发育、规模、频率等特征进行研究则有着重要的防灾减灾意义。研究将以米林县某公路工程沿线发育的某泥石流为典型代表,以点带面深入分析冲沟型泥石流的发育特点、沉积特征、灾害影响,并提出了针对性的措施。

西南山区泥石流防治工程效益浅析

中国西南山区小流域地形地貌特殊、降水充沛、物源丰富,泥石流发生频率高、灾害严重,主要采取岩土工程和生物工程措施综合防治。岩土工程措施的直接效益是拦蓄泥沙,调节泥石流固体物质总量,间接效益主要为稳沟固坡、改变沟道比降、削减泥石流流速和峰值流量、减小泥石流重度和性质、提升上游侵蚀基准面等。分析西南山区15条泥石流沟拦挡工程效益可知,拦沙坝直接减少松散固体物质总量的1.5%～48%,间接稳沟效益增加0.13%～35.39%,固坡效益增加0.01%～65.01%;谷坊直接减少物源0%～5%,间接稳沟效益增加0.04%～6.08%,固坡效益增加0.06%～33.98%。可知拦沙坝在拦挡工程防治中起主要作用,直接拦挡量是谷坊的几倍至几百倍,间接减少量为谷坊的2～10倍。生物工程措施通过增加植被覆盖率、减少地表径流、降低径流侵蚀、改善土壤结构,间接实现拦沙减沙效益。西南山区12条泥石流沟流域内植被覆盖率增幅19%～60%,间接减少泥石流物源总量达4.7%～34.6%。其中西昌市黑沙河流域植被覆盖率增加60%,侵蚀模数平均变化取值最高达9kt/(km2·a),侵蚀类型由极强变为轻度,减少物源5.894×106 m3,占物源总量的31.1%。生物工程防治效果显著。

东南地区泥石流活动与降水气候特征的关系

我国东南地区以低山丘陵为主,泥石流活动频率较低,但因经济发达和人口稠密,泥石流易导致严重灾害。东南地区绝大部分泥石流由降水引发,泥石流活动与降水特征间存在紧密的关系。在收集整理了近年来46个泥石流灾害事件后,分析了泥石流活动与各降水气候特征间的关系。分析结果显示,诱发泥石流灾害的5d降水量和15d降水量与降水气候特征间的关系最为密切,其函数关系可用于评估泥石流临界降水量,并作为该区域泥石流区域预报的因子。

三十年来的中国泥石流研究

本文通过对我国泥石流研究成果的总结,结合作者们工作的心得体会,就我国30年来的泥石流研究工作进行回顾与展望;并针对国情和灾情,提出了相应的意见和建议。

西部开发中的泥石流问题

西部地区的青、甘、陕、川、滇、黔、新、藏、宁、桂、内蒙和重庆等１２个省区市内都有泥石流分布，已查明的泥石流沟计１５５００余条，受泥石流危害或威胁的县级及以上政府驻地城镇逾百座，一场泥石流致死百人以上的灾害点达２３个。泥石流及其灾害是西部大开发中必须面临的生态环境问题之一。城市建设、公路和铁路等交通建设、水利建设、西气和西电东送工程建设等西部大开发的重点领域，在开发建设中都将要遇到泥石流问题，吸取以往这类建设中抗御泥石流灾害的经验与教训，对于减轻泥石流灾害和保障西部大开发顺利进行具有现实意义。

我国山区城镇泥石流灾害及其成因

我国受泥石流危害与威胁的县级及以上城镇达150余个,分布在20个省级行政区及特别行政区内,占省级行政区划总数的58.82%。灾害具有如下特征:城镇人口密度大,建筑物多,财产集中,因而泥石流的成灾率高,造成的人员伤亡多、财产损失重,并严重地制约了城镇及辐射区的经济发展。造成灾害的主要原因:受山区地形条件的限制,城镇选址困难,一些城镇不得不设在泥石流活动区;一些新建城镇选址时对泥石流的危害性认识不足,设在了泥石流危险区;在相当长的一段时间里,山区城镇发展缺乏合理规划和相应的防灾规划;与泥石流争地及破坏生态环境等不合理的人类经济活动增多,增大了泥石流的危害范围、活动规模与活动频率;防灾工程标准较低等。城镇泥石流灾害的防治应从其特征与成因着手进行。