Quantification of the adulteration concentration of palm kernel oil in virgin coconut oil using near-infrared hyperspectral imaging

The adulteration concentration of palm kernel oil(PKO)in virgin coconut oil(VCO)was quantified using near-infrared(NIR)hyperspectral imaging.Nowadays,some VCO is adulterated with lower-priced PKO to reduce production costs,which diminishes the quality of the VCO.This study used NIR hyperspectral imaging in the wavelength region 900-1,650 nm to create a quantitative model for the detection of PKO contaminants(0-100%)in VCO and to develop predictive mapping.The prediction equation for the adulteration of VCO with PKO was constructed using the partial least squares regression method.The best predictive model was pre-processed using the standard normal variate method,and the coefficient of determination of prediction was 0.991,the root mean square error of prediction was 2.93%,and the residual prediction deviation was 10.37.The results showed that this model could be applied for quantifying the adulteration concentration of PKO in VCO.The prediction adulteration concentration mapping of VCO with PKO was created from a calibration model that showed the color level according to the adulteration concentration in the range of 0-100%.NIR hyperspectral imaging could be clearly used to quantify the adulteration of VCO with a color level map that provides a quick,accurate,and non-destructive detection method.

Cameroon Green Energy Potentials: Field Survey of Production, Physico-Chemical Analyses of Palm Kernel Oil for Industrial Applications

This paper reports a field survey undertaken to determine the availability of raw material for palm kernel oil commercial production for industrial applications. Both industrial and artisanal wastes from palm kernel oil production were also surveyed as raw material (palm kernel seeds) for green energy production. Results of the field study show that 22% of palm kernel seeds (which represents tons of waste) resulting from palm oil processing plants are dumped while at the artisanal level, 80% of palm kernel seed waste is dumped. Analysis of field study data shows that large amounts of waste palm kernel seeds are available to enable large scale production of palm kernel oil (PKO) for desirable industrial applications in green energy production. The paper also reports on the physical and chemical properties of Cameroon palm kernel oil (PKO). Palm kernel oil was extracted using mechanical press and solvent extraction. The palm kernel oil (PKO) from Cameroon was analyzed by standard physico-chemical methods. Results of the physical measurements show a specific gravity of PKO of 0.92 kg/L, viscosity of 26.03 cSt and at 5.93 cSt at 40°C and 100°C respectively, viscosity index of 185, pour point of 20°C, cloud point of 29°C, flash point of 200°C, aniline point of 105°F, diesel index of 23, cetane number of 27 and ASTM (American Standards for Testing and Materials) color of less than 2.5. Results of chemical analyses showed an acid value of 17.95 mg KOH/g, free fatty acid (FFA) content of 8.98 mg KOH/g, iodine value of 2.10 mg I2/g, peroxide value of 2.10 meq/kg, ester value of 123.0 mg KOH/g, hydroxyl value of 93.4 mg OH/g, saponification value of 140.95 mg KOH/g and a sulfur content of 0.016% w/v, signifying low sulfur content. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) showed the palm kernel oil to be predominantly made up of glycerides of various fatty acids with higher proportions of C12 to C16 fatty acid residues. Cameroon PKO therefore has a broad spectrum of industrial applications by virtue of its rich physical and chemical properties.

Chemical Analyses of Palm Kernel Oil-Based Polyurethane Prepolymer

Polyurethane (PU) was prepared from palm kernel oil-based monoester polyol (PKO-p) via prepolymerization method at NCO/OH ratio of 200/100, 150/100, 100/100, and 75/100 at ambient temperature under nitrogen gas atmosphere. The structure of the synthesized prepolymerized PKO-p PU was determined using FTIR and 13C NMR. The disapperance of NCO peak in the FTIR spectrum at 2270 cm–1 - 2250 cm–1 cm showed that MDI has completely reacted to form PU. The appearance of C=O peak at 1700 cm–1 indicated that hydrogen bonding was formed between the soft segmented chain of the PKO-p and the hard segmented MDI. Hence, urethane bond was the main polymeric chain in the PU.

Synthesis and Characterisation of a Biolubricant from Cameroon Palm Kernel Seed Oil Using a Locally Produced Base Catalyst from Plantain Peelings

Biolubricant was synthesized from Cameroon palm kernel oil (PKO) by double transesterification, producing methyl esters in the first stage which were then transesterified with trimethylolpropane (TMP) to give the PKO biolubricant in the presence of a base catalyst obtained from plantain peelings (municipal waste). The yields from both catalysts were significantly similar (48% for the locally produced and 51% for the conventional) showing that the locally produced catalyst could be valorized. The synthesized biolubricant was characterized by measuring its physical and chemical properties. The specific gravity of 1.2, ASTM color of 1.5, cloud point of 0°C, pour point of -9°C, viscosities at 40°C of 509.80 cSt and at 100°C of 30.80 cSt, viscosity index of 120, flash point greater than 210°C and a fire point greater than 220°C were obtained. This synthesized biolubricant was found to be comparable to commercial T-46 petroleum lubricant sample produced industrially from mineral sources. We have therefore used local materials to produce a biolubricant using a cheap base catalyst produced from municipal waste.

Fractionation of Palm Kernel Oil by Short Path Distillation

Fractionation of palm kernel oil （PKO） by short path distillation （SPD） at two feed flow rates （135 g/h and 195 g/h） and six distillation temperatures, TD,s （200, 210, 220, 230, 240 and 250 ℃） was investigated. Other distillation parameters, such as vacuum pressure （0.001 mbar）, blade rotation speed （400 rpm） and temperature of the feed material （60 ℃） were kept constant. The fractionated products, known as residue and distillate, were analysed for physico-chemical properties including fatty acid composition （FAC）, triacylglycerol （TAG） composition, slip melting point （SMP）, thermal analysis by differential scanning calorimetry （DSC） and solid fat content （SFC）. Product yield was measured as well. Crystallisation behaviour of PKO and the fractionated products were studied by measurement of isothermal crystallisation, Tc,. at 0, 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25 ℃. The distillates, collected at all fractionation temperatures, were enriched with caprylic, capric and lauric acids. These fractions were also concentrated with low molecular weight and C36 TAGs. Distillates obtained at higher TDis （230-250 ℃） exhibited higher in SMP and SFC. On the other hand, the residual oils collected at all fractionation temperatures contained higher amount of long-chain fatty acid and palmitic acid. These fractions were enriched with high molecular weight TAGs. Residues obtained at lower Tois （200-220 ℃） were low in SMP and comparable SFC with PKO. Changes in fatty acid and TAG composition resulted in different crystallisation behaviour of the fractions. Distillates collected at all fractionation temperatures crystallised in a sharper peak while residues obtained at higher T Dis （230-250 ℃） showed broader crystallisation peaks, as shown by the DSC thermograms.

Synthesis and Characterization of Bio-Glycerol from Cameroon Palm Kernel Seed Oil

Bio-glycerol was synthesized from Cameroon palm kernel oil (PKO) through the transesterification procedure. Palm kernel oil extracted from palm kernel seeds using mechanical expression and solvent extraction was purified and characterized by physico-chemical methods and used in the transesterification process to give biodiesel and bio-glycerol. The biodiesel was purified and characterized as reported in previous articles. Our focus in this article is on glycerol, an important by-product of the transesterification process which has potential pharmaceutical, cosmetic and engineering applications. The bio-glycerol was purified by acidification and the purified glycerol was subjected to physical and chemical characterization. The specific gravity of glycerol was obtained as 1.2 kg/L, viscosity at 40&degC gave 1500 cSt and 500 cSt at 100&degC;pH was 7.4;the flash point was 160&degC, and the ASTM color was 2.0 before purification and zero after purification. The sulfur content was 0.016%w/v. This sulfur content is low thus posing no environment threat. The chemical composition of the synthesized bio-glycerol determined using IR spectroscopy and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) confirmed the known chemical structure of glycerol. The purification and analysis of bio-glycerol is important as it can find applications in the pharmaceutical, cosmetic and food industries inter alia.

Clay Characterization and Optimisation of Bleaching Parameters for Palm Kernel Oil Using Alkaline Activated Clays

The optimum bleaching parameters (clay dose and bleaching time) for palm kernel oil were determined using alkaline activated clay locally sourced in Nigerian. Activation was carried out using NaOH and KOH. The raw and activated clay samples were characterized using XRD and XRF. Bleached oil was analyzed for % colour reduction (%CR) and percentage free fatty acid (FFA) content before and after bleaching. Alkaline activation resulted to total dissolution of Mg2+ and Ca2+ ions in the octahedral sheet. The activation also affected the tetrahedral sheet by reducing the % composition of the silica and alumina ion after the modification. The results showed that alkaline activation had significant effect on mineralogical and chemical composition of the clay samples. The optimum bleaching conditions (clay dosage and bleaching time) of 3%/weight of oil and 30 mins resulted in 33.3% CR and %FFA of 2.2. It was discovered that NaOH activated clay resulted to higher %CR while KOH activated clay shows affinity for reduced %FFA but at higher concentration of 5 M. This research has further established that alkaline activated clays are feasible alternative for acid activated clays in vegetable oil bleaching.

Crystallization Behavior of Palm Kernel Oil Monitored by <i>In-Situ</i>Focused Beam Reflectance Measurement (FBRM) and Particles Video Microscope (PVM) during Suspension Crystallization

Crystallization behavior and kinetics study of palm kernel oil (PKO) were investigated using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) by controlling cooling and reheating rate within a certain range of temperature. The evolution of morphology and particle counts was analyzed by focused beam reflectance measurement (FBRM) and particles video microscope (PVM) at the nucleation stage during suspension crystallization. The particle counts and morphological evolution from needle-like aggregations to amorphous form from PVM were observed during the initial crystallization stage, which meant that a phase transition was likely to occur. This work can give a better understanding of complicated fat system crystallization behavior and provide some critical instructions to control fractionation process.

棕榈仁油取代椰子油生产人造奶油的研究

棕榈仁油的物化性质与棕榈油差异较大,但与椰子油形似。对两者的熔点、碘值、固体脂肪含量、脂肪酸组成、结晶形态进行比较,之后分别添加到混合油脂中,对相容性进行比较,最后进行成品品质分析。结果表明:棕榈仁油与椰子油熔点均在25℃左右;月桂酸质量分数均超过40%;棕榈仁油的不饱和脂肪酸质量分数为18.1%,椰子油为10.3%;棕榈仁油的结晶比椰子油细腻。在混合油脂中,棕榈仁油相容性好于椰子油。在成品中,含棕榈仁油人造奶油,其打发值为312.4、吸水值为650 mL,表现较优。同时,棕榈仁油市场价格也相对较低,可产生可观的经济效益。

Evaluation of Some Plant Oils Quality Commonly Sold in Ghana

Fats and oils are a class of organic compounds called lipids and are usually a mixture of triacylglycerols with their fatty acids in varying proportions. While large types of fatty acids are found in natural fats and oils, only a few of them are important to the body. Vegetable oils are an important part of an energetically balanced and healthy diet. The objective of this study was to evaluate the quality properties of three commonly consumed oils in Ghana. The chemical properties of the three oil samples, vegetable oil (Frytol), palm kernel oil, and coconut oil were analyzed to determine the peroxide value, saponification value, free fatty acid value, iodine value and moisture content. The moisture contents of the oil samples were 0.40%, 3.33% and 0.14% for vegetable oil, palm kernel oil and coconut oil respectively. Palm kernel oil recorded the highest value (11.64%) for free fatty acid and the least value of 0.17% being vegetable oil. Coconut oil recorded the least peroxide value of 0.59 mEqv·O2/kg followed by palm kernel oil (0.78 mEqv·O2/kg) and vegetable oil (0.80 mEqv·O2/kg). A high saponification value was recorded for all the oil samples with coconut oil recording the highest value of 292.12 mg/g KOH. The iodine value of the oil samples ranged from 102.59 to 237.27 mg I2/g). The high iodine values reported in this study is an indication that these oils have a high degree of unsaturation.

Energy and Exergy Analysis of a Vegetable Oil Refinery

Energy and exergy analysis was conducted for a vegetable oil refinery in the Southwest of Nigeria. The plant, powered by two boilers and a 500 kVA generator, refines 100 tonnes of crude palm kernel oil (CPKO) into edible vegetable oil per day. The production system consists of four main group operations: neutralizer, bleacher, filter, and deodourizer. The performance of the plant was evaluated by considering energy and exergy losses of each unit operation of the production process. The energy intensity for processing 100 tonnes of palm kennel oil into edible oil was estimated as 487.04 MJ/tonne with electrical energy accounting for 4.65%, thermal energy, 95.23% and manual energy, 0.12%. The most energy intensive group operation was the deodourizer accounting for 56.26% of the net energy input. The calculated exergy efficiency of the plant is 38.6% with a total exergy loss of 29919 MJ. Consequently, the exergy analysis revealed that the deodourizer is the most inefficient group operation accounting for 52.41% of the losses in the production processes. Furthermore, a critical look at the different component of the plant revealed that the boilers are the most inefficient units accounting for 69.7% of the overall losses. Other critical points of exergy losses of the plant were also identified. The increase in the total capacity of the plant was suggested in order to reduce the heating load of the boilers. Furthermore, the implementation of appropriate process heat integration can also help to improve the energy efficiency of the system. The suggestion may help the company to reduce its high expenditure on energy and thus improve the profit margin.

Energy Valorization by Continuous Pyrolysis of Straight Vegetable Oils (SVOs)

Researches have been undertaken to find a form of valorization of the surplus production of vegetable oils in C&#244te d’Ivoire for their use as a substitute diesel. The first tests of the use of crude oils-diesel blends by the company Palmindustrie faced enormous difficulties. We have therefore undertaken a campaign of pyrolysis of Tropical Straight Vegetable Oils: palm, copra, peanut, cotton, cabbage palm and shea, between 400°C and 600°C under atmospheric pressure. A silica support was used in co-catalysis either with water or with methylcyclohexane, which is a model compound of cetanes contained in gas oil. This compound has the advantage, unlike the gas oil itself, of not masking the peaks of the pyrolysis recombinates of oils in the chromatograms. The condensed organic phase consists mainly of hydrocarbons including paraffins, olefins, alkylbenzenes and styrenes. The yields of liquid hydrocarbons vary between 72% and 86%. A comparative study of coke precursors and gas production was carried out. A discussion on the parameters to be considered for a large-scale implementation was undertaken.

棕榈仁油干法分提工艺实践

为开发代可可脂系列产品,介绍了采用油盘冷房结晶-高压膜压滤机过滤的精炼棕榈仁油干法分提生产棕榈仁硬脂工艺。对该工艺操作控制要点进行了说明,并对生产中的一些问题进行了讨论,将该工艺制备的棕榈仁硬脂及其氢化硬脂与天然可可脂和商业氢化棕榈仁硬脂代可可脂产品质量进行了对比。原料油主要质量指标为酸值(KOH)≤0.3 mg/g、碘值(I)16~19 g/100 g、熔点25~28℃和固体脂肪含量(25℃)≥18%。适合的工艺条件为预冷温度29~30℃,预冷时间3 h,冷房温度17~19℃,冷房结晶时间6~8 h,油结晶温度25~27℃,过滤压力0~0.3 MPa、挤压压力1.6~1.8 MPa。产品主要质量指标为酸值(KOH)≤0.3 mg/g、碘值(I)5.6~7.5 g/100 g、熔点30~34℃、固体脂肪含量(30℃)34%~44%。采用该工艺所得棕榈仁硬脂的熔点和固体脂肪含量与天然可可脂相当,氢化后产品在25~30℃的固体脂肪含量高于商业氢化棕榈仁硬脂代可可脂。

The Empiric Use of Palm Kernel Oil in Neonatal Skin Care:Justifiable or Not?

Palm kernel oil is a vegetable oil derived from Elaeis guineensis and widely used in neonatal settings for skin care. It is a good emollient with a beneficial effect in moisturizing the skin and preventing transdermal heat and water loss. However, it＇s putative roles in the prevention or treatment of fatty acid deficiency is still controversial. So is its function in the improvement of neurological development from its long- chain polyunsaturated fatty acids？ We set out in this review to verify whether its empiric use in this context has any scientific justification and is recommendable. Although there is evidence that it has emollient and moisturizing properties necessary for softening the skin and restoring elasticity, controversy subsists on its other nutritional and neurodevelopmental properties.

气相色谱-质谱法分析棕榈果脂肪酸组成

采用索氏抽提法分别提取棕榈果肉和棕榈果仁中的油脂,以氢氧化钾—甲醇溶液对油脂进行甲酯化处理,用气相色谱-质谱(GC-MS)法分析。从棕榈果肉和棕榈仁的油脂中均分离并鉴定了9种脂肪酸,其中棕榈果肉中饱和脂肪酸质量分数为49.5%,主要有棕榈酸和硬脂酸,不饱和脂肪酸主要有油酸、亚油酸以及少量的亚麻酸和13,16-二十二碳二烯酸。棕榈仁中饱和脂肪酸80%以上,其中月桂酸质量分数达到41.5%,肉豆蔻酸和棕榈酸含量也较高,此外还含有少量的己酸、辛酸、癸酸和硬脂酸,不饱和脂肪酸有油酸和亚油酸。

海南文昌油棕油脂的脂肪酸组成及抗氧化活性研究

采用GC-MS测定了海南文昌小叶杜拉种(E.guineensis-S.L.Dura)油棕果中棕榈油(PO)和棕榈仁油(PKO)的脂肪酸组成,并对二者的体外抗氧化活性进行评价。结果表明,PO中总酚含量为(0.014±0.000 2)mg/g,而PKO中未测出多酚;PO及PKO的硫代巴比妥酸值(TBARS)显著低于空白样品;75%PO对DPPH.的清除能力显著高于Vc、苹果酸和儿茶酸,达98.86%,而PKO对DPPH.的清除能力低于对照;PO中多酚提取物(PO-PF)及75%PKO对Fe2+的络合能力显著高于Vc、苹果酸和儿茶酸;PO-PF和75%PO对Fe3+的还原能力显著高于Vc及苹果酸,75%PKO对Fe3+的还原能力与Vc相当。PO-PF及25%～75%PKO对ABTS+.的清除能力优于Vc和苹果酸。

棕榈仁油与五种油脂相容性的研究

利用等温相图，研究了棕榈仁油与5种常见人造奶油基料油——棕榈油、棕榈油硬脂、棕榈油软脂、氢化棕桐油和牛脂之间的二元相容性。结果表明，棕榈仁油与棕榈油系列油混合物在20～25℃内出现严重的共晶现象，与牛脂在10℃内出现偏晶现象，在20～25℃出现严重的共晶现象。

高载量微胶囊化棕榈仁油粉末油脂的制备

采用喷雾干燥法制备高载量(60%)微胶囊化棕榈仁油粉末油脂,对其制备工艺条件进行优化,并对获得的微胶囊化棕榈仁油粉末油脂的性质进行分析。研究结果表明:高载量微胶囊化棕榈仁油粉末油脂的最佳工艺条件为:辛烯基琥珀酸酯化(OSA)变性淀粉与麦芽糊精质量比为2∶1,黄原胶添加量为0.15%;乳化剪切速率为9 500 r/min,乳化时间为3 min,均质压力为40 MPa,均质次数为2次;进风温度为190℃,出风温度为85～95℃。用该法制备获得的高载量微胶囊化棕榈仁油粉末油脂为白色均匀粉末,理化性质良好。

棕榈仁油/甘油/吐温/水体系中的微乳化作用研究

分别以吐温-20、吐温-40、吐温-60、吐温-80和吐温-85为表面活性剂,甘油为助表面活性剂,在相同的条件下,制作了棕榈仁油/甘油/吐温/水四组分体系的拟三元相图。讨论了助表面活性剂(醇)与表面活性剂的质量比(Km)及不同表面活性剂对混合体系微乳化作用的影响。结果表明,所研究的各体系中,以吐温-60所形成的微乳状液区最大。

油棕仁贮藏蛋白质亚基组成和含量分析

［目的］为油棕仁中蛋白质的进一步研究与开发利用提供指导。［方法］ 采用非变性聚丙稀酰胺凝胶电泳（NativePAGE）和十二烷基硫酸钠－聚丙稀酰胺凝胶电泳（SDSPAGE）对油棕仁中贮藏蛋白质亚基进行研究，分析油棕仁蛋白主要亚基的组成、分子量、含量、二硫键的位置及种间差异。［结果］ 油棕仁中贮藏蛋白质在浓缩胶浓度为7.5%、分离胶浓度为12%的SDSPAGE凝胶系统中可以得到很好的分离。在油棕仁贮藏蛋白中含有6条主要亚基，分子量范围为18.8 ~51.5 kDa，主要是中、小分子量亚基；各亚基之间含一定量的二硫键。非变性凝胶电泳分析表明，油棕仁贮藏蛋白中含有4个不同分子量、不同电荷的组分。［结论］ 该研究所选的不同油棕品种之间亚基的组成和含量没有显著性差异。