The fable paradigm of the gender pay gap： Evidence from Portuguese private firms

This study investigates gender income disparity in Portuguese firms using separate Tobit models for men and women. While job segregation seems to be one of the major sources of gender disparity, women do not appear to be systematically underpaid in predominantly female occupations, regardless of the industry. The authors found that gender pay gap is larger in domestic firms, and it increases with employees＇ accumulated tenure and decreases with advanced education for women and on labor market entry. Despite showing some encouraging cracks, the glass ceiling still continues to prevent women from reaching top management positions. Finally, despite it appears wage disparity does exist, and it will probably continue to exist, the results point towards a window of opportunity for women.

Confucian culture and the external pay gap

We examine the impact of Confucian philosophy on external pay gaps,and find that a Confucianist atmosphere is negatively associated with firms’external pay gaps for both executives and employees.Mechanistically,the Confucian concept of“righteousness”reduces the self-interested motivation of management,in turn reducing executives’external pay gap;“humaneness”causes management to focus on protecting employees’rights and interests,benefiting employees’compensation;and“honesty”improves information disclosure,reducing the external compensation gap for both executives and general employees.The inhibitory effect of Confucian culture on the external pay gap is greater in regions with weak formal institutions and non-state-owned firms,while foreign cultural shocks attenuate the Confucian influence.Finally,the Confucian culture-driven reduction of the external pay gap improves enterprises’economic efficiency.

Review of Women’s Employment in Greece in the 20th and Early 21st Centuries

In the early 20th century,the role of Greek women in the working environment was considered complementary,and the type of work they would do should fit their Review of Women’s Employment in Greece in the 20th and Early 21st Centuries gender stereotypes.Therefore,they were low-paid workers and employees,and they were the first to be laid off.Despite the fact that the number of Greek women participating in the labor market has increased,many of them were obliged to work due to the high rate of men’s unemployment since there was no other way to sustain the living level of the household(Alpha Bank,2018).Greek women’s participation in the labor market was accompanied by an increase in flexible types of employment along with the pay gap between men and women,which remained persistent due to the existence of discrimination.

Economic sharing of honors: Equal or Exclusive?

The objective of this study is to examine whether and how non-financial performances,specifically the awards achieved by the corporates,are associated with the distribution of the compensation of the managers and other employees within the corporations.Through an investigation of the correlation between corporate awards and compensation,we find that corporate awards as collective honors raise managers’compensation but significantly reduce non-managerial compensation,thus widening the pay gap within the company.Our empirical evidence also shows that these correlations are more significant in state-owned enterprises than non-state-owned enterprises.In addition,our evidence reveals that although corporate awards increase the stickiness of managers’compensation but not that of other employees,the corporate awards can still stimulate better financial performance and market value by motivating both managers and other employees.Our empirical evidence implies that because only managers are responsible for and evaluated by comprehensive corporate performance,the issues of fairness and efficiency are not raised when the economic benefits provided by corporate awards are unequally shared.