Reflections on the Three Controversies in Economic Methodology by Virtue of the Philosophy of Science

The philosophical foundation of the mainstream neoclassical economics is empirical philosophy.The controversies of economic methodology over inductive and deductive methods,over verificationistic and falsificationistic approaches,and over positive and normative analyses in the evolution of economics are associated with those in the philosophy of science.The evolution of philosophy of science suggests that the above-mentioned pairs of economic methodologies should be appropriately combined when used in economics.It is not sensible to overemphasize either one inside each pair of economic methodologies.

New Perspective for the Philosophy of Science： Re-Construction and Definition of New Branches ＆ Hierarchy of Sciences

In this work, author evaluated past theories and perspectives behind the definitions of science and/or branches of science. Also some of the philosophers of science and their specific philosophical interests were expressed. Author considered some type of interactions between some disciplines to determine, to solve the philosophical/scientific problems and to define the possible solutions. The purposes of this article are： （i） to define new synthesis method, （ii） to define new perspective for the philosophy of science, （iii） to define relation between new philosophy perspective and philosophy of science, （iv） to define and organize name, number, relations, and correct structure between special science branches and philosophy of science, （v） to define necessary and sufficient number of branches for philosophy of science, （vi） to define and express the importance and place of new philosophy of science perspective in the new system, （vii） to extend the definition/limits of philosophy of science, （viii） to re-define meanings of some philosophical/scientific theories, （ix） to define systematic solution for the conflicts, problems, confusions about philosophy of science, sciences and branches of science, （x） to define new branches of science, （xi） to re-construct branches and hierarchy of science, （xii） to define new theories about science and branches of science. Author considered R-Synthesis as a method for the evaluation oftbe philosophy, philosophy of science, sciences and branches of science. This R-Synthesis includes evaluation of eight categories of general/specific perspective, 21-dimensions, and 12 general subjects （with related scope and contents） for the past 12,000 years. It is a kind of synthesis of science and non-science, physical science and non-physical science, religious science and non-religious science, and others. In this article, author defined 27 possible definitive/certain result cases for this new synthesis. Author defined the possible formation stages shortly to express new disciplines, new constructional and/or complementary theories. These theories are considered to define 21 major effective disciplines. New philosophy perspective is defined （R-Philosophy） shortly. New perspective and sub branches are defined for the philosophy of science. Major sciences are defined due to new basic philosophies. 42-basic components are defined for each science branch. New and/or re-constructed sciences, branches of science, basic sciences, and new hierarchy of science are defined with figure. Electromagnetic sciences, information sciences, and system sciences are defined specifically. Hybrid Sciences, New Era Science, and Ideal Scientific System are defined with general/specific figure. Relation between the some old branches and new branches of science was expressed generally due to new perspective of philosophy of science.

Development of Entropy Change in Philosophy of Science

Entropy is important in philosophy of science,but some fallacies originate from the misunderstanding entropy increases.The basis of thermodynamics is the statistics and its basic principle of statistical independence.We proposed possible entropy decrease due to fluctuation magnified and internal interactions in isolated systems,and discuss this possibility of various aspects on science and nature.Further,we derive quantitatively a total formula of entropy change for universal evolution of any natural and social systems,and discuss entropy decrease in economics and social sciences.Entropy change is a testable science.As long as we break through the bondage of the second law of thermodynamics,the rich and complex world is full of examples of entropy decrease.We believe world is not pessimistic always.

Philosophy of Science and Post-theoretical Life-World

Philosophy of science has arisen as alternative to epistemology, because scientific development wanted another kind of explanation than traditional epistemological one. The latter kind of explanation is theoretically loaded and based on latent ontological assumptions. Epistemology offers science a ＂road map＂ for researcher＇s thinking. Thus epistemology knows what science should be, and philosophy of science take science for granted--existing as an empirical fact. Philosophy of science had always been a reflective and critical discipline that didn＇t want any a-priory knowledge. The main distinction between these fields of knowledge is as follows： epistemology is theoretical and projective kind of knowledge whereas philosophy of science is a non-theoretical, or better, a ＂post-theoretical＂ discipline. All facts and statements arising from philosophy of science lie within the heterogeneous space, where there is continuous transit of pre-theoretical, theoretical and post-theoretical versions of knowledge. The inevitability of conservation and utilization of human thought products is recognized, which is supplemented by the need to study the impact of theoretical thinking upon social practices.

New Perspective for the Philosophy： Re-Construction ＆ Definition of the New Branches of Philosophy

In this article, author evaluated past/present perspectives about philosophy and branches of philosophy due to historical period, religious perspective, and due to their organized categories/branches or areas. Some types of interactions between some disciplines are given as an example. The purpose of this article is, to solve problems related with philosophy and past branches of philosophy, to define new philosophy perspective in the new system, to define new questions and questioning about philosophy or branches of philosophy, to define new or re-constructed branches of philosophy, to define the relations between the philosophy branches, to define good and/or correct structure of philosophy and branches of philosophy, to extend the definition/limits of philosophy, others. Author considered R-Synthesis as a method for the evaluation of the philosophy and related past branches of philosophy. This R-Synthesis includes general/specific perspective with eight categories, 21-dimensions, and twelve general subjects （with related scope and contents） for the past 12,000 years. It is a kind of synthesis of supernaturalism and naturalism, physics and metaphysics, others. In this article, author expressed 27 possible definitive/certain result cases of the new synthesis and defined the possible formation stages to express new theories, new disciplines, theory of interaction, theory of relation, hybrid theory, and others as constructional and/or complementary theories. These theories are considered for 21 major effective disciplines which are defined for a country and for the world. New philosophy perspective, branches of philosophy, and aims/purposes of R-Philosophy are defined to organize many inquiries about the name, number, and relation between special subject ＂X＂ and ＂philosophy of X＂ in some manner. This new perspective includes necessary and sufficient number of philosophy branches, and so it limits the number of ＂philosophy of X＂ in the philosophical system. New Era Philosophy is defined with its sub branches, its constructional philosophies, and with its 8D hybrid philosophy perspective. Ideal Philosophical System is defined with general/specific figure. Some of the new and/or re-constructed branches of philosophy explained with the new defined set of questions, new sub branches and constructional philosophies. Integration of the past/present branches of philosophy into the ideal philosophical system is explained generally. Philosophical interests of the some past philosophers and their relations with the ideal philosophical system expressed with table.

Institutional Degeneration of Science

The scientificity of the research should be evaluated according to the methodology used in the study.However,these are usually the research areas or the institutions that are classified as scientific or non-scientific.Because of various reasons,it may turn out that the scientific institutions are not producing science,while the“non-scientists”are doing real science.In the extreme case,the official science system is entirely corrupt,consisting of fraudsters,while the real scientists have been expelled from academic institutions.Since 2016-2017,there has been much talk about the“post-truth era”and the politicians who are“denying science”.However,simultaneously,many complaints about the corruption of science appeared.The outsider cannot tell who is telling the truth as it may be the case that the science fraudsters are defending themselves and these politicians are aware of the corruption.It is also untrue that the censoring or suppression of science started from 2016-2017.Suppression of science because of political and ideological reasons was present already long ago,and during the last few years,it has been increasing.The picture is highly complicated as there are many pretenders,false accusations,etc.For example,because of political reasons,someone may be set up as a pseudoscientist,the real scientist may be expelled using political accusations,justified criticism may be labelled as political pressure,etc.There is something like an inner information war ongoing in and around science.The classical philosophy of science seems unable to handle it because every formal rule can be misapplied.Science,as a whole,may be unable to persist.

Is Fengshui Science or Superstition？ A New Criterion for Judging the Value of Knowledge Systems

Fengshui, which can be translated as Wind-Water literally in English, is an ancient Chinese system of laws considered to govern spatial arrangement and orientation in relation to the flow of Qi, and whose favorable or unfavorable effects are taken into account when sitting and designing buildings. Similar systems exist in many other cultures such as Vastu Shastra in India, which consists of precepts born out of a traditional and archaic view on how the laws of nature affect human dwellings. Although prospered in ancient society, modem reactions to Fengshui are mixed. The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience states that principles of Fengshui are quite rational, but folk remedies and superstitions have been incorporated into its eclectic mix. In this paper, we do not distinguish Fengshui and other similar systems between science and superstition, but try to propose a criterion for judging whether a knowledge system is valuable, and if so, to whom it is valuable. We will end up arguing that, a knowledge system satisfying the criterion of relatively true property is valuable at least to its community of believers, and the problem of whether a knowledge system has greater value is essentially a problem of whether it is relatable to other knowledge systems, so as to expand its community of believers

Promoting Public Understanding in the Science of Geology

Geology is perhaps the most fascinating of the natural sciences, due to its all-encompassing nature. Virtually all human activities that occur on planet Earth--including agriculture, energy and mineral resource exploration and extraction; environmental and public policy on natural resources management and protection; land use planning; infrastructure development; and ecological tourism--all depend on various aspects of geology and its sub-disciplines. Due to the importance of geology in the daily lives of human beings, it is imperative that all persons develop at least a basic understanding of the science. In this paper, the current efforts for promoting public understanding in geology will be examined, with offerings of alternatives and supplements to these efforts. Information from the science education sub-disciplines of HPS （history, philosophy and sociology） of science, and informal/free-choice learning will be woven into the framework of the geology-public understanding idea.

Development of Matter and Testable Negative Matter as Unified Dark Matter and Dark Energy

Dark matter and dark energy as two basic problems of modern science are very important in philosophy.But,some models of them are not testability in epistemology.Based on Dirac’s negative energy,we propose that the negative matter and opposite matter are different.They can form a perfect symmetrical world.The negative matter may be the simplest model of unified dark matter and dark energy.It is the mechanism of inflation as origin of positive-negative matters created from nothing.We calculate an evolutional ratio between total matter and usual matter,and propose a judgment test of the negative matter as dark matter is an opposite repulsive lensing,and other eight possible tests.This is a testable and calculable model.

Timelessness and Time Dependence of Human Consciousness From a Scientific Western Viewpoint

Eastern philosophy and western science have convergent and divergent viewpoints for their explanation of consciousness. Convergence is found for the practice of meditation allowing besides a time dependent consciousness, the experience of a timeless consciousness and its beneficial effect on psychological wellbeing and medical improvements, which are confirmed by multiple scientific publications. Theories of quantum mechanics with non-locality and timelessness also show astonishing correlation to eastern philosophy, such as the theory of Penrose-Hameroff （ORC-OR）, which explains consciousness by reduction of quantum superposition in the brain. Divergence appears in the interpretation of the subjective experience of timeless consciousness. In eastern philosophy, meditation at a higher level of awareness allows the personal experience of timeless and non-dual consciousness, considered as an empirical proof for the existence of pure consciousness or spirituality existing before the material world and creating it by design. Western science acknowledges the subjective, non-dual experience, and its multiple beneficial effects, however, the interpretation of spirituality designing the material universe is in disagreement with the Darwinian Theory of mutation and selection. A design should create an ideal universe without the injustice of 3% congenital birth defects and later genetic health problems. The western viewpoint of selection is more adapted to explain congenital errors. The gap between subjectivity and objectivity, the mind-body problem, is in eastern philosophy reduced to the dominance of subjectivity over objectivity, whereas western science attributes equal values to both. Nevertheless, there remains an astonishing complementarity between eastern and western practices.

The Stabilizing Role of Material Structure in Scientific Practice

Knowledge of the environment is essential for the survival of organisms; but those organisms have to have the capacity to stabilize such knowledge. The aim of this article is to analyze the various strategies for stabilizing human knowledge, with a special focus on its material anchors and their interactions with other stabilization means. In particular, I consider how such stabilization is reflected in scientific activity and practice, and what its repercussions are for the models of science that have dominated the philosophical landscape of the 20th century. My starting hypothesis will be that the role of material anchors in stabilizing conceptual blends is analogous to that of technology in grounding scientific knowledge. The framework I adopt with regard to conceptualization is that of Fauconnier and Turner （2002） on conceptual blends. Just as technology intervenes in scientific practice in conjunction with conceptual elements, so do material anchors, which conjoin other non-material strategies of knowledge stabilization. Endowing knowledge with a material basis may be understood firstly as an element （sometimes a key element） for representing knowledge and offering an explanation, and secondly as a way of providing a scientific hypothesis with empirical grounding. It is this second sense that connects with scientific experimentation and the use of instruments and technology.

Developments of Space-Time, Complete Special Relativity, and Superluminal Entangled Communication

Time and space are two very important basic concepts in philosophy and nature.In special relativity we proved that there are necessarily two symmetrical topological structures separated by the light-cone,which includes the generalized Lorentz transformation(GLT)for the spacelike interval,in which phase velocity is superluminal.Based on quantum entanglement as new fifth interaction,we research a simple superluminal entangled communication,whose key is to establish two mutually entangled particles or devices Alice(A)and Bob(B).We observe and control the information of A position,and then can know the corresponding results of the other B.This is not to send directly information each other.It may be superluminal,and should agree and test GLT.Moreover,we research some new possible developments of time and space,such as the fractal dimension extended to the complex dimension,the higher dimensional time,and the arrow of time.A generalized Noether’s theorem is proposed.In quantum theory,we search the higher dimensional complex space in supersymmetry,and the space-time operators.

Some Progresses in Astronomy, and Three Predictions of Gravitational Wave

The big progresses in astronomy and universe are all related to important philosophy of science.Based on general relativity,we discuss some progresses:binary stars and their form,negative matter,and inflation,etc.Then we propose three predictions of gravitational waves:their observations must be nonlinear waves;velocity of gravitational wave should be slightly higher than the velocity of light;gravitational waves in black holes may emit and be observed.The directed gravitational wave observatories for high-energy astrophysics are proposed.

Wittgenstein and Kuhn on Paradigm

Wittgenstein in Philosophical Investigations and On Certainty develops a revolutionary conception of knowledge, of philosophy of language, and of philosophy of science. Very close to language-games is a concept that is important but did not attract much attention, the one of paradigm. In this paper this concept is analyzed together with notions such as context, use, reference, language-games, reality, science, truth, method, propositions, among others by means of which a new view of epistemology emerges. As for Kuhn, paradigm is his most known notion and his biggest contribution to innovate the history of science. I contrast these two conceptions and conclude that they have different uses, and that some difficulties that emerge from Kuhn＇s concept of paradigm would be dissolved if we take into consideration Witt^enstein＇s aooroaches of language and the uses it has in our life forms.

Digital Ecologies as Tractarian Systems

This paper explores Wittgenstein＇s early work as it relates to emerging philosophical problems in ecological modeling. Here I use his thought to structure a logical framework from which to discuss ecological simulation models in a way that captures how these dynamic representations describe a world from which we can draw logical inferences about real-world ecological processes. I argue that Wittgenstein＇s Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus provides a way of reading problems that arise in using simulation as a way to make inferences about the world. Conversely, ecological simulation provides an illustration of a Tractarian system, because the digital world it creates completely describes and is defined by the programing language. This reading is a novel, but productive, way that notes that the language used in modeling requires a hermeneutical approach to make inferences about modeling/real-world relationships.

Harmonizing models and observations: Data assimilation in Earth system science

Models and observations are two fundamental methodological approaches in Earth system science(ESS). They evolve collaboratively and enhance one another. However, neither of these two approaches is perfect, and they have incompatibilities due to their methodological differences. The emergence of data assimilation(DA) has enabled these two approaches to develop in conjunction and form a harmonic ESS methodology. As a result, DA has shown a fresh vitality and applicability in ESS. This paper reviews the application of DA in the main branches of ESS, traces the coordinated evolution of DA with the methodologies of rationalism and empiricism, analyzes the relationships of DA with estimation theory and cybernetics, summarizes the advances of DA in China, and presents an outlook on the challenges facing the development of a uniform DA for ESS. DA theories and methods will continue to evolve and provide an increasingly mature methodology for enhancing the understanding and prediction of Earth as a system.

Geography＇s ＂World view＂： The ontological issues of geography

Contemporary science philosophy suggests that discussing ontological problems is of fundamental significance broadly within certain specific disciplines. Natural and social science research are inseparable from philosophical guidance; for instance, the philosophy of geography is the ideological basis for geography. The traditional philosophy of geography is methodology- oriented, which primarily emphasizes the ＂logical structure of geography explanations,＂ and ig- nores the discussion of its ontology. This study, in the context of the philosophy of science, ex- plores the relationships between methodology, ontology, and the philosophy of geography, defines the connotations of geographical ontology, analyzes the links and differences between philoso- phical ontology and scientific ontology of geography, clarifies the nature of geographical ontology, and summaries its theoretical values. The ontology of geography incorporates the philosophically ontological beliefs of geographers and geographical schools and the ontological commitment of the theory of geography. As different geographers hold different philosophical viewpoints, their ontological beliefs are different; one geographical theory asserts an ontological commitment of ＂what is there,＂ which determines the nature and types of objectives the theory references. The ontological beliefs of geographers determine their epistemology, methodology, and axiology, and the ontological commitment of a geographical theory is the premise and basis of that theory.

Why Pheidippides could not believe in the‘Central Governor Model’:Popper's philosophy applied to choose between two exercise physiology theories

An important epistemological problem has been faced by Exercise Physiologists.On one hand,one theory explains the fatigue through a ceiling effect of oxygen uptake.On the other hand,the new theory proposes that an encephalon mechanism would stop the effort before a catastrophic homeostasis failure.Many physiologists have looked for evidence to support their favourite theory even though the induction logic problem does not allow to prove whether truth is discovered;however,it is possible to prove that it does not occur.When some researchers fail to test their hypotheses,they use relativism to bring up their theories again.Noakes and his colleagues have based their theory on relativism,because it is impossible to refute by empirical observation.It also doesn't explain all phenomena that the oldest Hill's theory is able to explain.Noakes's theory isn't more accurate in its previsions.Noakes did not check whether the oxygen uptake plateau occurs in suitable tests to measure on the mouth what happens in the muscles.Finally,it doesn't propose new tests for the encephalon role during maximal effort,as that is expected in scientific work.For all of these reasons,it is possible to conclude there are no advantages in switching to the“Central Governor”theory.

法国认识论或法国科学哲学是否存在?

法国一直有着深厚的认识论或科学哲学的传统,如今这一传统却遭到了某些学者(其中不乏法国学者)的质疑。本文是一篇辩护之作,针对这些质疑,在下述三个层面展开论证:1.'科学哲学'和'认识论'这两个概念是如何产生的,为什么这两个概念包含多种含义?2.法国的认识论传统为什么符合这两个概念,即使其研究方向与英美科学哲学不同?3.法国科学哲学如何能够与当代科学哲学接轨并纠正当今科学哲学中的某些谬误?本文的结论为:我们应当承认法国科学哲学在世界科学哲学研究中的地位。

Mistaking Statistics for Rigor in American Business School Research： Should China Follow, or Lead in a New Direction？

The heavy emphasis on statistical rigor that business schools in American universities place on research is questionable in general and, for business schools in China, is not necessarily a good strategy by which either to produce useful research or to distinguish themselves from business schools in the United States. The reasons for this pertain to, first, what statistical analysis is good for in science; second, what statistical analysis is not good for in science; third, what statistical analysis is and is not good for in business research; fourth, how a large sample size is not generalizable but a single case is; fifth, how action research, design research, and Herbert Simon＇s ＂sciences of the artificial＂ all demonstrate rigor without statistics; and finally, the historical context that explains the turn to statistics in American business schools but is irrelevant to China. The recommendation is for business schools in China not necessarily to reject statistical research, but rather, to also pursue other, equally scientific forms of research, including those recognized by Herbert Simon.