A statistical analysis of spatiotemporal variations and determinant factors of forest carbon storage under China's Natural Forest Protection Program

The Natural Forest Protection Program(NFPP)is one of the key ecological forestry programs in China.It not only facilitates the improvement of forest ecological quality in NFPP areas,but also plays a significant role in increasing the carbon storage of forest ecosystems.The program covers 17 provinces,autonomous regions,and municipalities with correspondingly diverse forest resources and environments,ecological features,engineering measures and forest management regimes,all of which affect regional carbon storage.In this study,volume of timber harvest,tending area,pest-infested forest,firedamaged forest,reforestation,and average annual precipitation,and temperature were evaluated as factors that influence carbon storage.We developed a vector autoregression model for these seven indicators and we studied the dominant factors of carbon storage in the areas covered by NFPP.Timber harvest was the dominant factorinfluencing carbon storage in the Yellow and Yangtze River basins.Reforestation contributed most to carbon storage in the state-owned forest region in Xinjiang.In state-owned forest regions of Heilongjiang and Jilin Provinces,the dominant factors were forest fires and forest cultivation,respectively.For the enhancement of carbon sequestration capacity,a longer rotation period and a smaller timber harvest are recommended for the Yellow and Yangtze River basins.Trees should be planted in stateowned forests in Xinjiang.Forest fires should be prevented in state-owned forests in Heilongjiang,and greater forest tending efforts should be made in the state-owned forests in Jilin.

Effects of management regimes on carbon sequestration under the Natural Forest Protection Program in northeast China

Carbon sinks constitute an important element within the complex phenomenon of global climate change,and forest ecosystems are important global carbon sinks.The Natural Forest Protection Program（NFPP） is an ecological program in China that was established after catastrophic flooding in the country in 1998.The goals of the NFPP are to curb the deterioration of the ecological environment,strengthen the protection and restoration of habitat to increase biodiversity,and rehabilitate natural forests to support sustainable development in forest regions.This study looked at changes in carbon sequestration in a forested area of northeast China after the inception of the NFPP.The program divides China＇s natural forests into three classes—commercial and two types of noneconomic forests—that are subject to management regimes prescribing varying levels of timber harvest,afforestation,and reforestation.During the 18-year period from 1998 to 2015,the total amount of carbon sequestration increased at an average annual rate of 0.04 MT C.This trend reflects a transformation of forest management practices after implementation of the NFPP that resulted in prohibited and/or restricted logging and tighter regulation of allowable harvest levels for specific areas.In documenting this trend,guidelines for more effective implementation of forestry programs such as the NFPP in other countries in the future are also suggested.

Coastal Protection Forest Construction Project

China’s coastal line starts at the Yalu River in Liaoning in the north and ends at the Beilun River mouth in Guangxi. It is 18,000 kilometres long and crosses 11 provinces, municipalities and autonomous regions, including Liaoning, Hebei, Tianjin, Shandong, Jiangsu, Shanghai, Zhejiang, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi and Hainan. In 1988, the Chinese government outlined the Coastal Protection Forest System Construction Project and defined the coastal line of 11 provinces as the main construction line. The project aims at developing a

Protection Forest for Yangtze River

The Yangtze River is the largest river in China, about 6,300 kilometres long with a drainage area and population accounting for 18.8 percent and 33 percent respectively in China. Aiming at increasing forest and vegetation areas on the middle and upper reaches of the Yangtze River to control water and soil erosion, the Chinese government in 1989 decided to commence a construction project for the protection of the forest system on the middle and upper reaches of the Yangtze River. The project covers 645 counties (cities and districts) in 13 provinces,

A review of ecological mechanisms for management practices of protective forests

A protective forest,including shelterbelt,windbreak,and shelter forest as its synonyms,is characterized by the protective functions of various forest types distributed or planted on ecologically fragile areas or nearby the objects that need to be protected using the ecological effects of forests.Ecological mechanisms for management practices of protective forests is one of the disciplinary orientations in forest ecology and management.Most protective forest studies are dependent on forestry eco-engineering,such as the Great Plains Shelterbelt Project in the United States,the Great Plan for the Transformation of Nature in the Soviet Union,and the Three-North Afforestation Program in China.The development of sustainable management of protective forests has been given increasing attention by governments,scientists,and media due to their impacts on environment conservation and global change.We introduce forestry ecoengineering and provide a review of their main ecological mechanisms for management practices of protective forests.Ecological mechanisms for management systems currently applied are emphasized,i.e.,the theory of protection maturity and phase-directional management;the relationship between structure and protective functions and structural optimization measures;and,the decline mechanism and ecological restoration strategies.In addition,several unresolved problems in management practices of protective forests are discussed as well as the prospects for ecological mechanisms for management practices of protective forests in the future,which include:(1)theories and technologies for management practices of protective forests at the landscape or regional scale;(2)the decline mechanisms and corresponding ecological restoration approaches across multiple scales;and,(3)the comprehensive assessment of forestry eco-engineering at large-scales based on ecosystem principles.

Predicting equations of main factors affecting regional climate in the"Three-North" Protective Forest Area

The relationship between the change of forest resources and climatic factor in the, “Three-North” region of China were studied in this paper. The predicting equations of climatic factor (dependent variable) with regional independent variable (longitude, latitude and altitude) and stand independent variable (forest coverage rate), were developed by extensively using the linear and nonlinear regression methods. With these models, we can calculate the ecological benefit of Shelter-belt forest.

SITE CLASSIFICATION FOR PROTECTIVE FOREST AFFORESTATION ON THE COAST OF CHINA

Land for protective forest on the coast has special site conditions, and site classification is the scientific basis for seaboard afforestation. The site classification system on the coast zone and islands of China may be classified into five levels-site region (sub - region), district, class, group, and type. The land division for afforestation is carried out by the principle of enviornmental heterogeneity among regions, sub-region and district on large scale, according to the difference of air temperature, moisture and type of coast geomorphy. It may be classified into 7 regions, 12 sub-regions and 55 districts. The medium and small scaled division for site class, group and type, subdivided in a site district, are based on medium topography, topographic climate, micro - relief and soil conditions.

Methods for the use of the best Russian innovations in forest fire detection and suppression

This paper addresses the final stage of the study concerning the practical use of the best Russian methods,technologies and means for detecting and extinguishing forest fires in Russia.In general,the work is aimed at increasing the effectiveness of the forest fire protection system by improving the methodological and technical support for the use of the best new innovations.In the course of the study,analytical methods have been applied,tested and used in silviculture,while developing and improving the regulatory legal and methodological frameworks.Based on the selection of research directions in the preliminary stages of work,analysis of the current state,use,and the development forecast of the most effective and promising technologies was carried out.In addition,for detecting,controlling and extinguishing forest fires,including a comparative analysis of their economic efficiency,methods for practical use of the best Russian innovations was developed.A significant number of new developments have accumulated which,for a number of reasons,have not been implemented.Taking into account the current state and dynamics of these promising methods,technologies,means of detecting and extinguishing forest fires,this study substantiates the development forecast of these promising innovations and their content.Its structure includes general provisions,concepts and terminology,regulatory support,the procedure for assessing the feasibility and effectiveness of the innovations,as well as a list of recommended documents for studying the use of technology for detecting,controlling and extinguishing forest fires.These methods will help meet modern requirements for the protection of forests from wildfires,and present an algorithm for their implementation in practice.

Evaluating and quantifying the effect of various spruce budworm intervention strategies on forest carbon dynamics in Atlantic Canada

Spruce budworm (SBW) outbreaks are one of the most devastating natural disturbances in spruce-balsam fir forests of eastern North America. Both early intervention strategy (EIS) and foliage protection strategy (FP) are being tested to limit forest losses, but the quantitative impact on forest carbon (C) dynamics is still unclear. In this study, we designed 19 separate scenarios of no intervention or varying success of EIS, FP, and their combination on SBW caused defoliation and mortality. We then used the TRIPLEX-Insect model to quantify their effects on forest C dynamics in the forests of the four provinces of Atlantic Canada. A scenario applying FP to 10%of the area with the greatest potential C losses of living biomass, protecting foliage in 10%of the forests is more realistic than higher proportion of FP given the high cost and large areas involved, resulted in reducing average cumulative net ecosystem productivity (NEP) from 2020 to 2039 by 56%–127%compared to a no outbreak scenario.Our results showed that FP would have to be applied everywhere to reduce tree mortality and increase NEP more than 8 years of successful EIS applied. However, if EIS can be successfully implemented for 12 years, it will maintain more forest C than FP applied everywhere during a moderate outbreak. We also found that the combination of EIS followed by FP in 10%of the areas disturbed by the SBW could maintain average cumulative NEP at similar levels to no defoliation in every province of Atlantic Canada. Black/red spruce forests younger than 60years old underwent the smallest changes in C dynamics whether using EIS, FP, or both. This highlights the importance of forest species, forest age, and their interactions on the effectiveness of a treatment during SBW outbreak. Overall, 31%–76%of the study area in Atlantic Canada could convert from a C sink to a source by 2039,if no protective measures are used under the worst-case scenarios, thus contributing to future climate warming.

Development and evaluation of local communities incentive programs for improving the traditional forest management:A case study of Northern Zagros forests,Iran

We examined the local community incentive programs to improve traditional forest management in three forested villages in Baneh city, Kurdistan province in the northern Zagros forests of western Iran. Zagros forests cover 6.07 million ha and support rich plant and animal diversity. Changes in local community social and economic sys-tems and the inefficiency of traditional forest management led to a criti-cal situation in the stability of forest regeneration in recent decades. Due to a shortage of productive and arable lands and resulting unemployment and poverty, people overexploited the Zagros forests. Outside interven-tion in traditional forest management creates conflicts between local peoples and forest management organizations. To achieve sustainable forest management, including forest resources conservation and im-provement of natural resource based livelihoods of communities, it is desirable to implement Forestry Incentive Programs （FIP） based on the important functions of forests. Detailed information on the so-cio-economics of communities, the effect of forests on local livelihoods, and lists of products extracted from the forest were obtained from a sur-vey of local communities though questionnaire, interview and observa-tion. We studied 276 households in three villages and completed 76 ques-tionnaires by householders in the quantitative analysis. Sampling was performed by simple random sampling （SRS）. The needs of rural com-munities, such as livestock husbandry, mainly arise from the characteris-tics and environmental features of villages. We identified the driving forces, pressures, status, impacts and responses （DPSIR） to design incen-tive programs, by DPSIR analysis and interaction analysis. Evaluation of local community benefits from forests showed that in order to improve forest management, 319 dollars per year would be needed by each family as an incentive in 2010 to prevent lopping and firewood collecting, the main causes of forest degradation.

Forest fire risk indices and zoning of hazardous areas in Sorocaba,Sao Paulo state,Brazil

This study compares the performance of three fire risk indices for accuracy in predicting fires in semideciduous forest fragments,creates a fire risk map by integrating historical fire occurrences in a probabilistic density surface using the Kernel density estimator(KDE)in the municipality of Sorocaba,Sao Paulo state,Brazil.The logarithmic Telicyn index,Monte Alegre formula(MAF)and enhanced Monte Alegre formula(MAF+)were employed using data for the period 1 January 2005 to 31 December 2016.Meteorological data and numbers of fire occurrences were obtained from the National Institute of Meteorology(INMET)and the Institute for Space Research(INPE),respectively.Two performance measures were calculated:Heidke skill score(SS)and success rate(SR).The MAF+index was the most accurate,with values of SS and SR of 0.611%and 62.8%,respectively.The fire risk map revealed two most susceptible areas with high(63 km^2)and very high(47 km^2)risk of fires in the municipality.Identification of the best risk index and the generation of fire risk maps can contribute to better planning and cost reduction in preventing and fighting forest fires.

Project to Protect Natural Forests

Gungjor County in Qamdois situated on the middlesection of the Jinsha-jiang River,on the upperreaches of the Yangtze Riverand in the northern part ofHenduan Mountains.Foreststhere total 220,198 hectares,and the forested area totals60,791 hectares.They com-bine to function as a naturalscreen on the Yangtze’s upperreaches.

PROTECTING THE RESOURCES OF THE TROPICAL RAIN FORESTS

In order to finish the cataloging work of buttercup species in the family of Renunculaceae for the compilation of the Flora Yunnanensis, I went to the CAS Institute of Botany in Kunming City,capital of Yunnan Province in May 1995 to look up phyto-taxonomic specimens. At the invitation of the Institute’s director Prof. Xu Zhaifu, when the work was coming to an end, I toured the well-known botanic garden of the Institute in the township of Menglu, which nests in the picturesque district of Xishuang Banna at the southernmost tip of the subtropical territory of Yunnan. In the winter of 1958,I had visited the ever-verdant vicinity to collect floral materials. After almost 37 years, I revisited the botanic garden founded by celebrated

Patterns of Ips cembrae(Herr)infestation on trap and standing trees of European larch(Larix decidua Mill.)

The large larch beetle,Ips cembrae,is a significant pest causing the death of larch.In 2020,the attack density of I.cembrae on larch trap trees and standing trees was evaluated using sample sections placed along the trunk.As a defensive measure against I.cembrae,trap trees were highly effective in both spring and summer.The attack density increased with increasing trap tree surface area/volume.Galleries were established evenly throughout the entire trunk including the thin upper portion.When the number of trap trees was low and their capacity full,a continual aggregation of adults occurred due to pheromone communication,leading to attacks on healthy standing trees in the immediate vicinity.It was found that I.cembrae attacked standing trees from the trunk base,with a continual colonization of the stem up to 70%of the tree height in a time-differentiated progression of development stages.The attack density of I.cembrae on standing trees was up to 40%lower than on the trap trees.

The Status of Dipterocarpaceae Plants in Taiwan

The Dipterocarpaceae family is famous for timber productions in Southeast Asia. The Shuangxi tropical arboretum in Taiwan introduced some dipterocarp species in 1935. However, the changes in abundance and regeneration of each dipterocarp species are unknown. This study aimed to investigate their diameters patterns and regeneration ability over a long period. The results showed that only four dipterocarp species were survived in this arboretum. An individual plant of Dipterocarpus gracilis Blume had a diameter of 5.7 cm. A young seedling was 90 cm in height, and some fruits germinated directly on the ground. A few fruits of Dipterocarpus grandiflorus (Blanco) Blanco were collected;however, and no seedlings have been found thus far, and its annual growth rate was 2.82% as the fastest growth speed. The annual growth rate of Rubroshorea polysperma (Blanco) P. S. Ashton & J. Heck was 2.32%, which is the second growth speed among the different species. Moreover, the abundance of R. polysperma increased as the fruits germinated. In particular, an uneven-aged forest of R. polysperma was established near the southwest area of the No. 2225 nature conservation protection forest, and an individual with a 100 cm DBH was also found. The fruits of Rubroshorea palosapis (Blanco) P. S. Ashton & J. Heck. could not be collected, but a young seedling appeared, with a height of approximately 150 cm. Therefore, Taiwan should be considered as the new distribution site for the Dipterocarpaceae family, all four dipterocarp species can grow in this area and need to be protected carefully.

Local perceptions of ecosystem services and protection of culturally protected forests in southeast China

Introduction:Culturally protected forests(CPFs),preserved and managed by local people on the basis of traditional practices and beliefs,have social and ecological functions.Local residents’perceptions were investigated in three types of CPFs(community forests,ancestral temple forests,and cemetery forests)in five villages in southeast China.In semi-structured interviews(232 questionnaires),residents were asked about their perceptions concerning ecosystem services and protection of CPFs.Outcomes:The survey results showed that resource utilizationwasnot high inCPFs than inforests without culturally protected.Important ecosystem services provided by CPFs included air quality improvement,water retention,recreation,and aesthetic value.Respondents were satisfied with different cultural services provided by CPFs,including aesthetic value of community forests,ecotourism of ancestral temple forests,and cultural heritage of cemetery forests.Informal rules and traditional customswere used as themainmeasures to govern forests in daily life;however,the most effective measures,in order of importance,were setting fines or punishment by laws,using informal rules and village regulations,or protection by government agencies.Only half of the respondents were willing to pay for maintaining ecosystem services of CPFs,but 77.8%respondents were willing to spend time on protection.From apolicy perspective,educational programs were as important as traditions,and they are crucial to explain the ecological importance of CPFs.Conclusion:The conservation of biodiversity and ecosystem services of CPFs will benefit if government agencies consider incorporating CPFs into policy and legislative frameworks,maintain CPFs as collectively owned forests,and introduce ecological compensation mechanisms.

厦门城市防护林体系的规划与建设

通过对厦门城市防护林现状和存在问题的分析,提出了防护林建设的原则、树种选择和规划。