A Review on Rill Erosion Process and Its Influencing Factors

Rills are frequently observed on slope farmlands and rill erosion significantly contributes to sediment yields. This paper focuses on reviewing the various factors affecting rill erosion processes and the threshold conditions of rill initiation. Six factors, including rainfall, runoff, soil, topography, vegetation and tillage system, are discussed. Rill initiation and network are explored. Runoff erosivity and soil erodibility are recognized as two direct factors affecting rill erosion and other types of factors may have indirect influences on rill erosion through increasing or decreasing the effects of the direct factors. Certain conditions are necessary for rill initiation and the critical conditions are different with different factors. Future studies should be focused on 1) the dynamic changes of rill networks; 2) the combined effect of multiple factors; and 3) the relationships of threshold values with other related factors.

Rainfall and inflow effects on soil erosion for hillslopes dominated by sheet erosion or rill erosion in the Chinese Mollisol region

Erosion agents and patterns profoundly affect hillslope soil loss characteristics. However, few attempts have been made to analyze the effects of rainfall and inflow on soil erosion for hillslopes dominated by sheet erosion or rill erosion in the Chinese Mollisol region. The objective of this study was to discuss the erosive agent(rainfall or inflow), hillslope erosion pattern(sheet erosion or rill erosion) and slope gradient effects on runoff and soil losses. Two soil pans(2.0 m long, 0.5 m wide and 0.5 m deep) with 5° and 10° slopes were subjected to rainfall(0 and 70 mm h–1) and inflow(0 and 70 mm h–1) experiments. Three experimental combinations of rainfall intensity(RI) and inflow rate(IR) were tested using the same water supply of 70 mm by controllingthe run time. A flat soil surface and a soil bed with a straight initial rill were prepared manually, and represented hillslopes dominated by sheet erosion and rill erosion, respectively. The results showed that soil losses had greater differences among treatments than total runoff. Soil losses decreased in the order of RI70+IR70 > RI70+IR0 > RI0+IR70. Additionally, soil losses for hillslopes dominated by rill erosion were 1.7-2.2 times greater at 5° and 2.5-6.9 times greater at 10° than those for hillslopes dominated by sheet erosion. The loss of <0.25 mm soil particles and aggregates varying from 47.72%-99.60% of the total soil loss played a dominant role in the sediment. Compared with sheet erosion hillslopes, rill erosion hillslopes selectively transported more microaggregates under a relatively stable rill development stage, but rills transported increasinglymore macroaggregates under an active rill development stage. In conclusion, eliminating raindrop impact on relatively gentle hillslopes and preventing rill development on relatively steep hillslopes would be useful measures to decrease soil erosion and soil degradation in the Mollisol region of northeastern China.

The characteristics of rill development and their effects on runoff and sediment yield under different slope gradients

Rill formation is the predominant erosion process in slope land in the Loess Plateau, China. This study was conducted to investigate rill erosion characteristics and their effects on runoff and sediment yielding processes under different slope gradients at a rate of 10°, 15°, 20° and 25° with rainfall intensity of 1.5 mm min-1 in a laboratory setting. Results revealed that mean rill depth and rill density has a positive interrelation to the slope gradient. To the contrary, width-depth ratio and distance of the longest rill to the top of the slope negatively related to slope gradient. All these suggested that increasing slope steepness could enhance rill headward erosion, vertical erosion and the fragmentation of the slope surface. Furthermore,total erosion tended to approach a stable maximum value with increasing slope, which implied that there is probably a threshold slope gradient where soil erosion begins to weaken. At the same time, the correlation analysis showed that there was a close connection between slope gradient and the variousindices of soil erosion: the correlation coefficients of slope gradient with maximal rill depth, number of rills and the distance of the longest rill from the top of the slope were 0.98, 0.97 and-0.98, respectively,indicating that slope gradient is the major factor of affecting the development of rills. Furthermore,runoff was not sensitive to slope gradient and rill formation in this study. Sediment concentration,however, is positively related to slope gradient and rill formation, the sediment concentrations increased rapidly after rill initiation, especially. These results may be essential for soil loss prediction.

A Preliminary Study of Rill Marks in the Yellow River Delta

In recent years, the flow of the Yellow River has often been interrupted, which has resulted in exposure of channel bars and point bars, and even extensive exposure of the riverbed. Consequently, a large number of rill marks have developed. They are diverse in morphology. According to the hydrodynamic types of their formation, they can be grouped into 6 categories, i. e. the wave eroded, backwash, seepage, rain eroded, water drainage and runoff rill marks. Morphologically, they can be divided into more than ten types: the linear, tooth shaped, comb shaped, fence like, ear like, braided, branched, leaf like, flower like, root like, dendritic, net like, radial etc. Their cross sections include the broad u type (the width/depth ratio is over 2, and may reach 10—20), U type (width/depth ratio from 1 to 2), V type, Ω type and ( type. Their occurrences may be attributed to the variations in composition, grain size, color, fabric and morphology. They have 5 scales: the micro scale (length and width within 1 cm), small scale (length and width within 10 cm), medium scale (length and width ranging from 10—100cm), large scale (length and width 1—5 m) and giant-scale (length or width over 5 m).

Rill flow velocity affected by the subsurface water flow depth of purple soil in Southwest China

Subsurface water flow above the weakly permeable soil layer commonly occurs on purple soil slopes.However,it remains difficult to quantify the effect of subsurface water flow on the surface flow velocity.Laboratory experiments were performed to measure the rill flow velocity on purple soil slopes containing a subsurface water flow layer with the electrolyte tracer method considering 3 subsurface water flow depths(SWFDs:5,10,and 15 cm),3 flow rates(FRs:2,4,and 8 L min^(-1)),and 4 slope gradients(SGs:5°,10°,15°,and 20°).As a result,the pulse boundary model fit the electrolyte transport processes very well under the different SWFDs.The measured rill flow velocities were 0.202 to 0.610 m s^(-1) under the various SWFDs.Stepwise regression results indicated a positive dependence of the flow velocity on the FR and SG but a negative dependence on the SWFD.The SWFD had notable effects on the rill flow velocity.Decreasing the SWFD from 15 to 5 cm increased the flow velocity.Moreover,the flow velocities under the 10-and 15-cm SWFDs were 89%and 86%,respectively,of that under the 5-cm SWFD.The flow velocity under the 5-,10-and 15-cm SWFDs was decreased to 89%,80%,and 77%,respectively,of that on saturated soil slopes.The results will enhance the understanding of rill flow hydrological processes under SWFD impact.

Assessment of Rill Erosion Development during Erosive Storms at Angereb Watershed, Lake Tana Sub-basin in Ethiopia

Application of simple and locally based erosion assessment methods that fit to the local condition is necessary to improve the performance and efficiency of soil conservation practices. In this study, rill erosion formation and development was investigated on the topo-sequence of three catchments （300-500 m slope length）; and on agricultural fields （6 m and 24 m slope lengths） with different crop-tillage surfaces during erosive storms. Rill density and rill erosion rates were measured using rill cross section survey and close range digital photogrammetry. Rill formation and development was commonly observed on conditions where there is wider terrace spacing, concave slope shapes and unstable stone terraces on steep slopes. At field plot level, rill development was controlled by the distribution and abrupt change in the soil surface roughness and extent of slope length. At catchment scale, however, rill formation and development was controlled by landscape structures, and concavity and convexity of the slope. Greater rill cross sections and many small local rills were associated to the rougher soil surfaces. For instance, relative comparison of crop tillage practices have showed that faba-bean tillage management was more susceptible to seasonal rill erosion followed by Teff and wheat tillage surfaces under no cover condition. Surface roughness and landscape structures played a net decreasing effect on the parallel rill network development. This implies that spatial and temporal variability of the rill prone areas was strongly associated with the nature and initial size of surface micro-topography or tillage roughness. Thus, it is necessary to account land management practices, detail micro-topographic surfaces and landscape structures for improved prediction of rill prone areas under complex topographic conditions. Application of both direct rill cross section survey and close range digital photogrammetric techniques could enhance field erosion assessment for practical soil conservation improvement.

A Preliminary Study on Traditional Level-trench Method to Prevent Rill Initiation in the Three Gorges Region,China

The level-trench method is a traditional tillage operation to develop a drainage system on slope land in the Three Gorges region. Before crops are planted, farmers prepare the land with level trenches spaced 3-1o m apart, depending on the slope gradient： steeper slopes require shorter distances. Little scientific analysis has been done on the use of traditional level trenches for soil conservation. We conducted a field investigation and simulation experiments, and present a comparison between the spacing of level trenches and the slope length required for rill initiation. The results indicate that the spacing of level trenches in farmland is close to the slope length required for rill initiation in the experimental plots, and regression models of trench spacing with the gradient and the slope length required for rill initiation with the gradient have similar formats; the coefficients of determination （R2） for the two equations are 0.99 and 0.88, respectively. There were some differences between the field survey and experiments, but we conclude that the traditional level-trench method has an important role in preventing rill initiation.

Developments of Rill Networks: An Experimental Plot Scale Study

Enumerating the relative proportions of soil losses due to rill erosion processes during monsoon and post-monsoon season is a significant factor in predicting total soil losses and sediment transport and deposition. Present study evaluated the rill network with simulated experiment of treatments on varying slope and rainfall intensity to find out the rill erosion processes and sediment discharge in relation to slope and rainfall intensity. Results showed a significant relationship between the rainfall intensity and sediment yield (r = 0.75). Our results illustrated that due to increase in rainfall intensity represent the development of efficient rill network while, no rill was found with a slope of 20° and a rainfall intensity of 60 mm·h-1. The highest rill length was observed in plot E with 20° slope and 120 mm·h-1 rainfall intensity at 360 minutes. Positive and strong correlation (R2 = 0.734, P 0.001) was observed between the cumulative rainfall intensity and sediment discharge. A longitudinal profile was delineated and showed that the depth and numbers of depressions amplified with time and were more prominent for escalating rainfall intensity for its steeper slopes. Information derived from the study could be applied to estimate longer-term erosion stirring over larger areas possessing parallel landforms.

Gorilla Thriller More Chinese tourists keen to encounter mountain gorillas

The majestic mountain gorilla has a very secluded home,living exclusively in the tropical forests of the Democratic Republic of the Congo(DRC),Rwanda and Uganda.According to the World Wildlife Fund for Nature(WWF),there are more than 1,000 mountain goril las living in the world,less than a half of which live in the Virunga Mountains on the border of the DRC and Rwanda,with the remainder calling tlie Bwindi Impeneti able National Park in Uganda home.

Plot investigation on rill flow resistance due to path tortuosity

The path tortuosity t is an indicator of rill morphology accounting for the deviation of the thalweg from a straight alignment.The effect of t on flow resistance has been little investigated for rills.This paper reports the results of a plot investigation aimed to establish the suitable accuracy of the rill thalweg measurement to determine the tortuosity parameter and to test the reliability of a theoretical flow resistance law.Four rills were incised in clay soil(CS)and clay-loam soil(LS)and shaped by a clear flow discharge.The three-dimensional Digital Terrain Models were created by the Structure from Motion technique.For rills on LS,an approximate thalweg was tracked by photo-interpretation,and a specific calculation routine was applied to identify the cross sections with a constant spacing d.The actual rill thalweg was obtained as the line joining the lowest points of these cross-sections.Among the different tested d values,d=0.075 m was chosen to determine t.For both CS and LS,the Darcy-Weisbach friction factorffeatured a non-monotonic relation with t,which was explained as the result of three additive components due to bed roughness,sediment transport,and localized energy losses due to curves.The effect of the former two components onff contrasts that of the third,resulting in a linearly decreasing f-t relationship and constant flow velocity for the three lowest tortuosity values,and an increased friction factor and reduced flow velocity for the highest tortuosity value.The flow resistance law was positively tested,and the predicted friction factor was dependent on t.

Experimental determination of sediment transport capacity of rill flow over sandified loess slope

Rill erosion is affected by the sand particle content in soil,especially in the wind and water erosion transition region of the Loess Plateau.The sediment transport capacity(STC)is a key parameter in rill erosion research,assessing the impact of aeolian sand intrusion on the STC of rill flow is of importance for a better understanding of rill erosion.This study aimed to assess the effect of aeolian sand intrusion on the STC on sandified loess slopes,with typical slopes and flow discharges,using a flume system which consisting of a sediment-feeding and a sediment-supply/settlement flume.The sediment feeding flume was jointed by 10°higher than that of the sediment measurement flume section.Three flow discharges(2,4,and 8 L min^(-1))and four slope gradients(5°,10°,15°,and 25°)were used to represent the natural hydrological conditions under three intrusion rates(SIR)of aeolian sands(10%,20%,and 50%).The results show that STC increased with slope gradient and flow discharge,and the relationship between the STC and the SIR was significantly affected by the slope gradient;the STCs decreased with the SIR on a slope of 5°but increased with the SIR on steep slopes of 15°-25°,implying a significant impact of slope gradient on the relationship between SIR and STC.The SIR of 50%resulted in the highest sediment concentration nearly 1200 kg m^(-3)on slopes of 25°.On sandified loess slopes of 10%,20%,and 50%SIR,the STC were about 30%,46%,and 57%higher than on loess slopes,indicating an increased erosion rate by sand particle intrusion into loess soil.These results highlight the impact of sand intrusion on STC of rill flow and provide deeper insights into the soil loss process on the sandified loess slope.

2种典型黄土坡面侵蚀特征分析及物理意义解释

研究土壤性质对侵蚀特征的影响可为深刻理解土壤侵蚀机理,以及优化评估模型参数提供重要理论支持。基于此,本研究采用室内模拟降雨试验,在90 mm/h降雨强度及4个坡度(5°、7.5°、10°和15°)条件下,分析黄土丘陵沟壑区2种典型黄土的侵蚀特征,并结合数学关系和物理意义对其侵蚀机制进行解释。结果表明:1)相对于土壤A,土壤B产流快,径流量高,更易发育细沟,侵蚀也更严重,土壤B的总径流量和总侵蚀量分别是土壤A的1.26~1.51倍和3.74~57倍。2)总体来看产流初始阶段侵蚀量、片蚀量和细沟侵蚀阶段侵蚀量均随坡度而增加,片蚀阶段土壤B的含沙量是土壤A的1.09~4.47倍,细沟侵蚀阶段前者是后者2.01倍。土壤B在细沟侵蚀阶段的侵蚀量可达总侵蚀量的98%以上,平均含沙量是片蚀阶段的7.09~32.39倍,相应情况下土壤A分别是96%和10.49倍。3)2种土壤的产沙量与含沙量的关系可用y=ax+b表示,经过优化处理,线性关系的R 2可达0.98及以上,斜率a可用以表征径流的侵蚀能力,截距b用来表征可搬运物质类型及丰富程度。本研究对于深入理解土壤质地在坡面侵蚀中的作用,以及为生态保护提供理论支持具有重要的理论与实践意义。

降雨条件下风速对迎风坡坡面细沟侵蚀特征的影响

[目的]为明确风力作用下迎风坡坡面细沟侵蚀特征。[方法]采用人工模拟风驱雨试验,研究在不同风速条件(0,3,5,7 m/s)下迎风坡坡面水沙过程变化规律及细沟形态特征。[结果]与无风坡面相比,迎风坡面产流时间和跌坎出现时间分别增加20.59%~47.06%和33.10%~137.78%,坡面平均流速减小12.86%~22.53%;产流率和产沙率随风速的增加而显著减少(p<0.05),不同风速条件下,迎风坡面产流率变化趋势相近,随着降雨进行产流率逐渐增加,一段时间后保持稳定,不同风速下的阶段性无明显差异。产沙率随降雨历时的延长整体呈先迅速增加后缓慢下降并趋于稳定趋势,产沙率发生变化的节点与跌坎出现时间基本一致。细沟宽度、深度及其波动程度随着风速的增加而减小;细沟宽度、深度及其波动程度随着风速增加而减小;细沟宽深比和细沟倾斜度分别为1.40~1.69和13.47°~14.76°,均随着风速的增加而增大;不同风速条件下,细沟体积、细沟割裂度和细沟密度分别为4.39×10^(3)~10.27×10^(3)cm^(3),0.024~0.042,2.03~2.92 m/m^(2),三者均随风速的增加而减小。[结论]细沟体积、细沟密度和割裂度与坡面侵蚀量均呈极显著正相关关系,是表征迎风坡坡面细沟形态的优选指标。

基于三维激光扫描技术的冻结黑土细沟发育模拟

为探究融雪径流与冻结状态对黑土细沟网络发育的影响,该研究开展了冻结与非冻结处理黑土坡面的融雪径流模拟冲刷试验,利用三维激光扫描技术获取多次定时径流冲刷并直至侵蚀形态稳定的坡面点云,结合数字表面模型差异(digital surface model of difference,DoD)微地形变化监测方法与点云逆向工程,获取细沟网络发育过程的侵蚀面积、侵蚀体积、细沟长度和细沟密度等侵蚀参数。结果表明,冻结因素与温度变化对细沟网络发育过程与程度有重要影响:1)冻结处理的黑土坡面更容易发展出细沟网络,达到坡面侵蚀形态基本稳定后的侵蚀面积、侵蚀体积以及侵蚀细沟长度是非冻结处理黑土坡面的291%、557%和437%。2)冻结处理与非冻结处理沿坡面细沟截面形态变化差异明显。冻结坡面细沟交叉时宽深比RW/D快速减小,下切速度加快,随后宽度与深度呈比例稳定增加;非冻结坡面汇水处的R_(W/D)随冲刷次数增加而增大,侧蚀速度加快,其他截面R_(W/D)随着冲刷次数的增加而减小,下切速度加快。3)采用ArcGIS与点云逆向工程模型联合获取的冻结状态下细沟形态参数与发育过程DoD相对误差范围为-12.70%~4.42%,提取精度在95%以上。该联合方法在冻结土体条件下获取细沟参数具有较高精度,可作为土壤侵蚀参数高精度提取的一种手段。

仿生非光滑原理及其在金刚石钻头中的应用

仿生非光滑原理与孕镶金刚石钻头结合起来,并将生物非光滑表面的耐磨、减阻等特性引用到钻头的设计中,使钻头也具有这样的特性,研究一种新型的仿生孕镶金刚石钻头,以此来提高钻头的效率和寿命。通过Φ75 mm仿生钻头的野外钻进试验可知,仿生钻头的钻进效率较普通钻头至少提高10%,钻头寿命提高30%。该研究为提高深部地质钻探关键工具的性能提供了新的思路,具有一定的现实意义。

Effect of conservation structures on curbing rill erosion in micro-watersheds, northwest Ethiopia

Accelerated soil erosion by water is a critical problem in Ethiopia,where population is rapidly growing and extensive farming systems are very common with no or less preventive measures.The study aimed to evaluate effects of conservation structures (terraces) in reducing the magnitude of rill erosion by using rill survey technique at cultivated field scales in relation to crop type and location in hill slope direction of the fields in the Beribere micro-watershed (catchment),northwest Ethiopia.The study assessed factors accelerating rill erosion in the micro-watershed.Rill erosion in the terraced fields was reduced by 53.5%as compared to the non-terraced control fields.In the terraced areas,terracing damage is the main contributing factor to soil loss due to rills.In the non-terraced fields,entering of high erosive runoff from uphill areas and damage of drainage ditches were observed as the principal accelerating factors for initiation and development of rill erosion,whereas these processes had insignificant effect on rill erosion in the terraced fields.Moreover,rill erosion shows spatial differences in terms of crop covers and location in hill slope direction of the study site.Hence,there should be adequate criteria for effective communication between farmers and extension staff to design site-specific erosion control practices for addressing the problem.The study verifies that rill surveying is a significant method to pragmatic assessment of the effectiveness of terracing practices in controlling soil erosion by water.

Quantifying spatial distribution of interrill and rill erosion in a loess at different slopes using structure from motion(SfM)photogrammetry

The spatial distribution of interrill and rill erosion is essential for unravelling soil erosion principles and the application of soil and water conservation practices.To quantify interrill and rill erosion and their spatial development,four 30-min rainfalls at 90 mm h^(-1)intensity were consecutively simulated on runoff plots packed with a loess at six slopes of 10°,15°,20°,25°,30°and 35°.The soil surface was measured using the structure from motion(SfM)photogrammetry upon each simulation run,and the runoff and sediment samples were collected and measured at every 10 min.Rills did not develop until the third simulation run.During the initial two runs,the lower third section was more severely eroded than the upper and middle thirds along the slope direction,yet the interrill erosion was statistically uniform from left to right.Rills tended to emerge by both sidewalls and in the lower portion in the third run.The corresponding rill erosion increased with slope from 10°to 20°and then decreased for the slopes steeper,which was consistent with the slope trend of the sediment yield directly measured.The rills expanded substantially primarily via head retreat and to a lesser extent via sideward erosion after receiving another 30-min rainfall.Rill erosion contributed 69.3%of the total erosion loss,and shifted the critical slope corresponding to the maximum loss from 20°to 25°.These findings demonstrate the significance of rill erosion not only in total soil loss but also in its relation to slope,as well as the effectiveness of SfM photogrammetry in quantifying interrill and rill erosion.

旧桥拼接钻孔植筋技术研究

以青兰高速某特大桥拼接工程为例,阐述了钻孔植筋施工工艺,分析了旧桥拼接施工过程中钻孔植筋存在的问题,并提出解决方案,通过研究相关技术,同时提高此类工程施工水平,以期为后续类似工程施工提供经验。

Finite element method for one-dimensional rill erosion simulation on a curved slope

Rill erosion models are important to hillslope soil erosion prediction and to land use planning.The development of rill erosion models and their use has become increasingly of great concern.The purpose of this research was to develop mathematic models with computer simulation procedures to simulate and predict rill erosion.The finite element method is known as an efficient tool in many other applications than in rill soil erosion.In this study,the hydrodynamic and sediment continuity model equations for a rill erosion system were solved by the Galerkin finite element method and Visual Cþþprocedures.The simulated results are compared with the data for spatially and temporally measured processes for rill erosion under different conditions.The results indicate that the one-dimensional linear finite element method produced excellent predictions of rill erosion processes.Therefore,this study supplies a tool for further development of a dynamic soil erosion prediction model.

Determination of rill erodibility and critical shear stress of saturated purple soil slopes

The hydrological conditions near the soil surface influence the soil erosion process,as determined by the soil erodibility and critical shear stress.The soil erodibility and critical shear stress of saturated purple soil slopes were computed and compared with those of unsaturated purple soil slopes.The detachment capacities computed through the numerical method(NM),modified numerical method(MNM)and analytical method(AM),from rill erosion experiments on saturated purple soil slopes at different flow rates(2,4,and 8 L min-1)and slope gradients(5,10,15,and 20°),were used to comparatively compute the soil erodibility and critical shear stress.The computed soil erodibilities and critical shear stresses were also compared with those of unsaturated purple soil slopes.At the different slope gradients ranging from 5°to 20°,there were no significant differences in the soil erodibilities of the saturated purple soil and also in those of the unsaturated purple soil.The critical shear stresses slightly varied with the slope gradients.The saturated purple soil was relatively significantly more susceptible to erosion.The NM overestimated the soil erodibility of both saturated and unsaturated soils by 31%and underestimated the critical shear stress.The MNM yielded the same soil erodibility and critical shear stress values as the AM.The results of this study supply parameters for modeling rill erosion of saturated purple soil slope.