Using Natural Radionuclides to Trace Sources of Suspended Particles in the Lower Reaches of the Yellow River

Natural radionuclides are powerful tools for understanding the sources and fate of suspended particulate matter(SPM).Particulate matter with different particle sizes behaves differently with respect to adsorption and desorption.We analyzed the activi-ties and distribution characteristics of multiple natural radionuclides(238U,226Ra,40K,228Ra,7Be and 210Pbex)on size-fractionated SPM at the Lijin Hydrographic Station(Huanghe or Yellow River)every month over a one-year period.Results showed that medium silt(16–32µm)was the main component.As expected,the activity of each radionuclide decreased with an increase of particle size.We examined the sources of SPM with different particle sizes using activity ratios of 226Ra/238U,228Ra/226Ra,40K/238U and 7Be/210Pbex,and concluded that SPM with different particle sizes originated from different sources.Our results indicate that fine SPM(<32µm)was mainly from the erosion of soil along the lower reaches of the Yellow River,while coarse SPM(>32µm)was mainly derived from resuspension of riverbed sediment.During high runoff periods,the concentration of SPM increased significantly,and the pro-portion of fine particles originating upstream increased.Naturally occurring radioactive isotopes,especially on size-fractionated par-ticles,are therefore seen as useful tracers to understand the sources and behaviors of riverine particles transported from land to sea.

Estimation of Annual Effective Dose Due to Ingestion of Natural Radionuclides in Cattle in Tin Mining Area of Jos Plateau, Nigeria

Contamination of land could occur during the extraction and handling of materials containing high levels of naturally occurring radionuclide materials. These radionuclides find their ways into the food chain. The activity concentrations of natural radionuclides 40K, 226Ra, and 232Th in heart, liver, kidney, lungs, spleen and beef of cattle slaughtered and consumed in a tin mining area of Jos Plateau, Nigeria were determined by gamma ray spectroscopy method. The activity concentration of 40K is the highest in all the samples. The annual effective dose to man through the ingestion of the radionuclides in the organs was estimated. The mean annual effective doses calculated are 35.35 ± 13.84, 57.89 ± 38.27 and 46.93 ± 10.28 μSv?y?1 for heart, liver and kidney, respectively. Those of lungs, spleen and meat are 28.44 ± 15.70, 48.34 ± 28.85 and 41.24 ± 3.56 μSv?y?1, respectively. These are of the order of two magnitudes higher than those obtained for food in Abeokuta, Nigeria.

Distributions of Radionuclides (U &Th) and Pedogenic Characteristics as Indicators of Wet and Warm Climate during the Holocene in the Western Part of the Upper Gangetic Plain, India

Distribution of radionuclides in the soil samples, Infra-red stimulated luminescence dating techniques, elec-trical conductivity, pH measurements and grain size analysis of soils of the region between the Ganga and Yamuna Rivers (in the Upper Gangetic plain) have been studied. Soil characteristics are highly sensitive to climate changes and the degree of soil development indicated by higher thicknesses of A-Horizons, solum and clay accumulation in b-horizon are higher during the periods 1.7 - 3.6 ka and 6.5 - 9.6 ka, marked by wet and warm climates (inferred from earlier studies), the former period being marked by higher degree of soil development than the later. Radionuclides are significantly in higher amounts in soils developed during the period 1.7 - 3.6 ka, thus indicating that this was the wettest and warmest period, so these radionuclides could be released by weathering of primary rocks and be preserved in sedimentary rocks deposited during that pe-riod.

Assessment of Natural Radionuclides in Fly Ash Produced at Orji River Thermal Power Station, Nigeria and the Associated Radiological Impact

Coal fired power plants produce significant amounts of ashes, which are quite often being used as additives in cement and other building materials. Coal contains trace quantities of 226Ra, 232Th and 40K. The concentrations of these radionuclides are usually low in the coal, but enriched in fly ash. The activity concentrations of natural radionuclides in fly ash and soil samples in the vicinity of Orji River thermal power station in Nigeria was determined by gamma ray spectroscopy method using NaI(Tl) detector. The mean activity concentrations of 226Ra, 232Th and 40K in the fly ash were 40.8 ± 11.6, 49.1 ± 9.3 and 321 ± 17 Bq·kg–1, respectively. Coarse fly ash collected from the dump site had mean activity concentrations of 28.2 ± 8.3, 37.6 ± 5.0 and 335 ± 32 Bq·kg–1, respectively for 226Ra, 232Th and 40K. Soil samples collected at about distances of 10 m from the dump site had 32.7 ± 4.3, 40.0 ± 4.2 and 298 ± 15 Bq·kg-1, respectively. Those collected at about distances of 100 m from the dump site had 39.1 ± 11.2, 34.1 ± 5.2 and 257 ± 19 Bq·kg-1, respectively. Occupational dose received by workers due to exposure to the fly ash ranged between 33.0 and 61.2 μSv·y-1 with a mean value of 47.1 ± 8.4 μSv·y-1, which is below the intervention exemption level of 1 mSv·y-1. The radium equivalent activity concentration, external and internal hazard indices of the fly ash were below the recommended maximum values for building materials. The mean outdoor absorbed dose rate and the annual effective dose obtained in the vicinity of the plant were 49.7 ± 4.0 nGy·y-1 and 0.30 ± 0.02 mSv (dump site), 51.7 ± 3.6 nGy·y-1 and 0.32 mSv (soil 10 m from dump site), 49.4 ± 4.9 nGy·y-1 and 0.30 ± 0.03 mSv (soil 100 m away from dump site), which are lower than the world average. The results obtained in this study show that there is no significant radiological impact of the fly ash on both the workers and the public from radiation protection point of view.

Contamination of Camel Milk (Heavy Metals, Organic Pollutants and Radionuclides) in Kazakhstan

In Kazakhstan, camel breeding mainly occupies areas sometimes close to polluting industries or other sources of pollu- tion as industrial agriculture, mainly cotton. Products issued from camel farms close to these sources as camel raw milk and fermented milk (shubat), wool and meat, traditionally used by humans could be contaminated. We investigated camel raw milk and fermented milk for the content of heavy metals (lead, cadmium, zinc and copper), radionuclide and some organic pollutants (PAHs, pesticides and indicator PCBs) in samples from different regions with a priori high risk of pollution (Atyrau, Kyzylorda, South-Kazakhstan and Almaty region). In the present paper, only some milk samples presented high lead concentration (> 500 ppb). After analysis for organic pollutants, it was observed some traces of hexachlorocyclohexane, lindane, hexanchlorothalonil in milk samples from different regions. One sample was also slightly contaminated with radionuclide. These preliminary results allow establishing a first map of risk for camel farming. As the whole, South-Kazakhstan appeared the most exposed region.

Natural Radionuclides Content in Granites from Operational Quarry Sites

Natural radionuclides content in granite from eight functional quarries in Osun State, Southwestern Nigeria was assessed. Eighty granite samples comprise?&frac34?inches.?&frac12?inch and stone-dust were collected from Wolid, Slava, Ayofe, Espro, Ife/Modakeke, Krystal Vountein, Clario and Omidiran quarries in the State. Measurement was done using a high purity germanium (HPGe) detector. The statistical analysis was carried out using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software to determine if granite size has an impact on the activity concentrations. The results revealed that the mean activity concentrations of 238U (12.64 ± 1.89 Bq·kg -1) and 232Th (16.93 ± 2.46 Bq·kg -1) were highest in?&frac34?inch granite and lowest in stone-dust (5.01 ± 0.77 and 8.97 ± 1.37 Bq·kg -1 respectively), whereas 40K is highest in the &frac34?inches (266.19 ± 35.53 Bq·kg -1) and lowest in?&frac12?inches (151.85 ± 25.09 Bq·kg -1) granite. Espro has the highest (23.75 ± 3.74 Bq·kg -1) while Wolid has the lowest (4.11 ± 0.73 Bq·kg -1) 238U activity concentration and Slava has lowest for 232Th (8.21 ± 1.12 Bq·kg -1) and 40K (109.54 ± 11.06 Bq·kg -1). The radiological hazard parameters such as absorbed dose, annual effective dose radium equivalent, gamma index, external index, and internal index, were calculated to assess the radiation hazards associated with granite samples. The results obtained are lower than the recommended limits. The results were compared with the published data of other countries. Although, all the calculated radiation hazard indices were lower than the permissible limits. Therefore, people working in the quarries, granite end-users and the general public are safe from radiological health risks from the quarries, since there is no significant health hazard. The research will give reliable information on activity concentrations of natural radionuclides in granite rocks, contribute to a better understanding of radioactivity distribution in granite, and develop standards.

Prediction of Soil Fractions (Sand, Silt and Clay) in Surface Layer Based on Natural Radionuclides Concentration in the Soil Using Adaptive Neuro Fuzzy Inference System

In this research, a gamma ray sensor (The Mole) was used to get the natural radionuclides concentration in situ in the surface layer of cultivated soils. For sand, silt and clay predictions, an adaptive neuro fuzzy inference system (ANFIS) was performed to predict such fractions (Sugeno model). The inputs to the system were Potassium (40K), Uranium (238U), Thorium (232Th) and Cesium (137Cs) concentrations. It is concluded that ANFIS structure is acceptable in the prediction of sand, silt and clay considering the studied inputs. Test results and predicted outcomes were compared and acceptable correlations were obtained.

Study of Radionuclides and Radon Exhalation Rate in Soil and Sand Samples from Tiba, Luxor, Governorate

In this study, the natural radionuclides in soil and sand have been measured by using high purity germanium (HPGe) detector. While, radon exhalation rate has been measured by Alpha GUARD. The data analysis is performed to determine 226Ra, 232Th, and 40K activity concentrations in addition to 222Rn exhalation rate. The values of radium equivalent activity (Raeq), external hazard index (Hex), internal hazard index (Hin), and absorbed dose rate were ranged from 46.46 to 124.16 Bq&sdot;kg&minus;1, 0.07 to 0.33 Bq&sdot;kg&minus;1, 0.09 to 0.42 Bq&sdot;kg&minus;1, and 13.24 to 58.37 nGy&sdot;h&minus;1 respectively in all samples. The area and mass exhalation rates were increased from 9.16 &plusmn;2.83 to 16.18 &plusmn;2.83 Bq&sdot;m&minus;2&sdot;h&minus;1 and 1.8 &plusmn;1.34 to 11.35 &plusmn;0.98 Bq&sdot;kg&minus;1&sdot;h&minus;1 respectively.

Atmospheric Dispersion and Deposition of Radionuclides (¹³⁷Cs and ¹³¹I) Released from the Fukushima Dai-ichi Nuclear Power Plant

The Lagrangian Particle Dispersion Model (LPDM) in the 594 km× 594 km model domain with the horizontal grid scale of 3 km×3 km centered at a power plant and the Eulerian Transport Model (ETM) modified from the Asian Dust Aerosol Model 2 (ADAM2) in the domain of 70° LAT × 140° LON with the horizontal grid scale of 27 km×27 km have been developed. These models have been implemented to simulate the concentration and deposition of radionuclides (137Cs and 131I) released from the accident of the Fukushima Dai-ichi nuclear power plant. It is found that both models are able to simulate quite reasonably the observed concentrations of 137Cs and 131I near the power plant. However, the LPDM model is more useful for the estimation of concentration near the power plant site in details whereas the ETM model is good for the long-range transport processes of the radionuclide plume. The estimated maximum mean surface concentration, column integrated mean concentration and the total deposition (wet+dry) by LPDM for the period from 12 March to 30 April 2011 are, respectively found to be 2.975 × 102 Bq m-3, 3.7 × 107 Bq m-2, and 1.78 × 1014 Bq m-2 for 137Cs and 1.96 × 104 Bq m-3, 2.24 × 109 Bq m-2 and 5.96 × 1014 Bq m-2 for 131I. The radionuclide plumes released from the accident power plant are found to spread wide regions not only the whole model domain of downwind regions but the upwind regions of Russia, Mongolia, Korea, eastern China, Philippines and Vietnam within the analysis period.

Radioactivity Levels and Soil-to-Plant Transfer Factor of Natural Radionuclides from Protectorate Area in Aswan, Egypt

The aim of this study is to determine the transfer factor soil-to-plant and to assess the concentration level of natural and artificial radionuclide (238U, 226Ra, 228Ra, 232Th, 40K and 137Cs) in samples from Saluga and Ghazal Protectorate area in Aswan, Egypt, by using High Pure Germanium detector (HPGe) Environmental Radioactivity Measurements Labrotary in faculty of science Qena. Reported values for natural radionuclides ranged from 8.81 ± 0.64 to 28.88 ± 2.10, from 6.98 ± 0.51 to 26.01 ± 1.89, from 12.29 ± 0.89 to 33.32 ± 2.43, from 12.53 ± 0.91 to 32.81 ± 2.39 and from 383.90 ± 27.95 to 711.98 ± 51.83 Bq.kg-1 for 238U, 226Ra, 228Ra, 232Th and 40K, respectively. 137Cs activity concentration was found to be in the range from 0.36 ± 0.03 to 9.73 ± 0.71 Bq.kg-1 and was calculated through transfer factor TF reported in this article.

Establishing a Relationship between Coal Quality and the Enrichment of Radionuclides in Coal Combustion Residues

Coal-fired power plants (CFPP) provide approximately 40% of the world’s energy demand. Naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM) contained in coal become enriched in coal combustion residues as a result of the elimination of carbon during combustion. The fly ash and bottom ash produced from CFPP may be significant sources of exposure to naturally occurring radionuclides for the population near the combustion plant or ash dumps. Despite this fact, very few studies have actually addressed the relationship of the NORM enrichment factors and the quality of coal used. This paper aims to relate the quality of coal to the enrichment factors for the radionuclides of interest (K40, Ra226, Th232 and Po210) in coal combustion residues from three South African CFPP. The data from other CFPP was also taken into account to establish this correlation. The feedstock coal used in these CFPP is typically low quality, with ash content in the range of 25 - 45 wt%. The radionuclides investigated were determined by gamma spectrometry with the exception of Po210, which was determined by alpha spectrometry. The enrichment factors for the radionuclides of K40, Ra226, Th232 and Po210 in the fly ash and bottom ash (except Po210) was found to be directly proportional to the quality of coal. That is when the ash percentage increased (coal quality decreased) the enrichment factor decreased. The Po210 radionuclide in the bottom ash had an enrichment factor less than one. The relationship between coal quality and enrichment factors for the radionuclides of K40, Ra226, Th232 and Po210 in both the fly ash and bottom ash (except Po210 in the bottom ash) was demonstrated by the following mathematical equation: . This equation may be used as a good indication in obtaining an estimate in determining the enrichment of the mentioned radionuclides in coal combustion products such as fly ash and bottom ash.

A Migration Model of Radionuclides in Fissured Rock

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Activation Cross Sections for Generation of Long-Lived Radionuclides

A summary is given on the activation cross section measurements performed byChina Institute of Atomic Energy（CIAE）,Lanzhou University（LU）,Peking University（PU）and Sichuan University（SU）from 1989 to 1994 for generation of long-lived radionuclides of im-portance in fusion reactor technology.The cross sections are measured for the reactions 109Ag（n,2n）108Agm,151Eu（n,2n）150Eum,153Eu（n,2n）152Eu8,159Tb（n,2n）158Tb,179Hf（n,2n ）178Hfm2,182W（n,n′α）178Hfm2,187Re（n,2n）186Rem and 193Ir（n,2n）192Irm2at 14 MeV,109Ag（n,2n）108Agm,151Eu（n,2n）150Eum,159Tb（n,2n）158Tb and 179Hf（n,2n）178Hfm2at 9.5 and 9.9 MeV,and98Mo（n,γ）199Mo（β-）→99Tc,165Ho（n.γ）166Hom and 151Eu（n,γ）152Eu8 in the energy range of20～1100 keV.Some of them were calculated by systematic and HFTT code,which was basedon the compound nucleus evaporation and the preequilibrium exciton model.

Use of ^(137)Cs and ^(210)Pb_(ex) fallout radionuclides for spatial soil erosion and redistribution assessment on steeply sloping agricultural highlands

The steeply sloping agricultural highlands in Korea have severe soil erosion.Estimation of both soil erosion and sedimentation in these highlands is necessary to make plans for soil-conservation measures,but it is not feasible using existing soil-erosion models.This study measured the site-specific concentrations of ^(137)Cs and ^(210)Pb_(ex) on both a highland slope(33%slope)and a reference site(undisturbed flat area)to estimate soil erosion and redistribution.The use of the fallout radionuclide(FRN)method was evaluated to see if it is a suitable method for characterizing soil erosion.Results were compared with those obtained with the Universal Soil Loss Equation(USLE),which is an empirical model that estimates annual soil erosion.The average concentrations of ^(137)Cs and ^(210)Pb_(ex) at the reference site were 11.57±0.24 Bq kg^(-1) and 59.74±4.2 Bq kg^(-1),respectively.Concentrations of ^(137)Cs and ^(210)Pb_(ex) in the experimental slope were 16.4%and 10.8%,respectively,of those at the reference site.Radionuclide inventories were lower at the upper point of the slope than those at the basal point of the slope.Concentrations of ^(137)Cs and ^(210)Pb_(ex) were significantly correlated with available phosphorus,organic matter,CEC,and exchangeable cations.Estimation of soil redistribution rate using ^(137)Cs and ^(210)Pb_(ex) showed site-specific variations at different points along the slope,and respective ranges were^(-1)7.46~-207.51 and 1.55~-581.38 Mgha^(-1) yr^(-1),which indicated that more erosion was assessed by ^(210)Pb_(ex) than by ^(137)Cs.Redistribution analysis showed that soil erosion occurred along the entire slope,except for the bottom point of the slope where 1.55 Mgha^(-1) yr^(-1) of sediment accumulated.The USLE provided a single value of the average annual soil loss in the entire slope,which was either 166 or 398 Mgha^(-1) yr^(-1),depending on the soil erodibility factor(soil series factor and calculated factor from soil sample analysis)used in the model.We conclude that the FRN method using ^(137)Cs and ^(210)Pb_(ex) radionuclides can be used to assess soil erosion and redistribution in steeply sloping agricultural highlands.Verification of soil-erosion values using the FRN method and soil-erosion models has been controversial,but it merits further study at many locations with different soils,topography,and management practices.

Distribution of gamma-ray radionuclides in surface sediments of the KongsQorden, Arctic: Implications for sediment provenance

The Kongsfjorden is highly sensitive region to climate variability,however,the study of gamma-ray radionuclides in related areas is relatively scarce.In this study,the grain size,total organic carbon(TOC),13 Corg isotopes,and specific activities of seven gamma nuclides were analysed in surface sediments of the Kongsfjorden in the Arctic during the summer of 2017.The specific activities of 210 Pb_(ex),137 Cs,238 U,226 Ra,228 Ra,228 Th,and 40 K were 12–256 Bq/kg,0–3.8 Bq/kg,25–42 Bq/kg,24–38 Bq/kg,22–40 Bq/kg,22–40 Bq/kg,and 354–738 Bq/kg,respectively,with average values of(121±94)Bq/kg,(2.0±1.2)Bq/kg,(34±6)Bq/kg,(32±4)Bq/kg,(32±6)Bq/kg,(33±6)Bq/kg,and(611±119)Bq/kg.This study observed a significant positive correlation(r=0.845,p<0.05)between TOC and 210 Pb_(ex),highlighting the strong influence of organic matter on the distribution of 210 Pb_(ex).The boundary scavenging of210 Pb from the open sea contributed 27.5%–46.2%to the total 210 Pb_(ex) in the sediments of the outer Kongsfjorden.The grain size was an important factor affecting the activity distribution of several radionuclides(238 U,228 Ra,228 Th,226 Ra,and 40 K).The specific activity of 137 Cs indicated the transport of terrestrial materials from the exposed area of the Kongsfjorden.The sediments in the Kongsfjorden were derived from various material contributions of glacial meltwater debris,glacial rivers,bare soil,atmospheric deposition,and marine sources.This study explains the source of the Kongsfjorden sediment and the distribution characteristics of radionuclides,and illustrateas the main factors affecting the distribution of radionuclides,which provides a reference for the behavior of polar radionuclides in future research.

Medical management of victims contaminated with radionuclides after a “dirty bomb” attack

A wide spectrum of scenarios may lead to radiation incidents and the liberation of radioactive material. In the case of a terrorist attack by a "dirty bomb", there is a risk of mechanical and thermal trauma, external irradiation, superficial contamination and incorporation of radioactive material. The first treatment priority must be given to the care of trauma patients with life-threatening injuries, as the health effects of radiation occur with latency. Radionuclide incorporation will lead to a longer-lasting irradiation from inside the body, associated with a higher risk of stochastic radiation effects(e.g., occurrence of tumors) in the long run. It must be expected that victims with potentially incorporated radionuclides will far outnumber trauma patients. The elimination of radionuclides can be enhanced by the administration of decorporation agents such as(Ca) Diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid(DTPA) or Prussian blue,reducing the radiological burden of the body. There is still no consensus whether decorporation treatment should be started immediately based only on a suspicion of radionuclide incorporation("urgent approach") or if the results of internal dosimetry confirming the necessity of a treatment should be awaited, accepting the delay caused by the measurements and computations("precautionary approach"). As the therapeutic effectiveness may be substantially decreased if treatment initiation is delayed only by several days, depending on the radionuclide, the physicochemical properties of the compounds involved and the route of absorption, we favor an "urgent approach" from a medical point of view. In doubt, it seems justified to treat victims by precaution, as the adverse effects of the medication seem minimal. However, in the case of a high number of victims, an "urgent treatment approach" may require a large number of daily doses of antidotes, and therefore, adequate investments in preparedness and antidote stockpiling are necessary.

Advanced porous materials and emerging technologies for radionuclides removal from Fukushima radioactive water

Japan recently announced the plan to discharge over 1.2 million tons of radioactive water into the Pacific Ocean,which contained hazardous radionuclides such as^(60)Co,^(90)Sr,^(125)Sb,^(129)I,^(3)H,^(137)Cs,and^(99)TcO^(4)^(-),etc.The contaminated water will pose an enormous threat to global ecosystems and human health.Developing materials and technologies for efficient radionuclide removal is highly desirable and arduous because of the extreme conditions,including super acidity or alkalinity,high ionic strength,and strong ionizing radiation.Recently,advanced porous material,such as porous POPs,MOFs,COFs,PAFs,etc.,has shown promise of improved separation of radionuclides due to their intrinsic structural advantages.Furthermore,emerging technologies applied to radionuclide removal have also been summarized.In order to better deal with radionuclide contamination,higher requirements for the design of nanomaterials and technologies applied to practical radionuclide removal are proposed.Finally,we call for comprehensive implementation of strategies and strengthened cooperation to mitigate the harm caused by radioactive contamination to oceans,atmosphere,soil,and human health.

Synthesis of novel nanomaterials and their application in efficient removal of radionuclides

With the development of nuclear energy, large amounts of radionuclides are inevitably released into the natural environment. It is necessary to eliminate radionuclides from wastewater for the protection of environment. Nanomaterials have been considered as the potential candidates for the effective and selective removal of radionuclides from aqueous solutions under complicated conditions because of their high specific surface area, large amounts of binding sites, abundant functional groups, pore-size controllable and easily surface modification. This review mainly summarized the recent studies for the synthesis, fabrication and surface modification of novel nanomaterials and their applications in the efficient elimination and solidification of radionuclides,and discussed the interaction mechanisms from batch experiments, spectroscopy analysis and theoretical calculations. The sorption capacities with other materials, advantages and disadvantages of different nanomaterials are compared, and at last the perspective of the novel nanomaterials is summarized.

Fallout radionuclides (~7Be and ^(137)Cs) in surface soils and lake sediments in west Yunnan and central Guizhou, China

WEST Yunnan and central Guizhou with variable altitudes and similar latitudes, located in the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau of the eastern slope uplifting Himalayas, were selected as study areas in this note. Thetwo areas consist mainly of carbonate rocks discontinuously covered by similar soil types with severe soiland water loss except Lugu Lake catchment. Climate of the study areas is subtropical monsoon, apparently influenced by mingled southeastern monsoon and southwestern monsoon with abundant precipitation.This study is to comparatively describe distribution and inventory of 7Be and 137Cs in the sediments of Erhai Lake, Lugu Lake and Hongfeng Lake as well as in 28 surface soil profiles of their watersheds.The results have shown that: （i） In all the soil profiles, 7Be activities decrease exponentially with soil depth. 7Be apparent ac-

Upscaling the use of fallout radionuclides in soil erosion and sediment budget investigations:Addressing the challenge

The application of fallout radionuclides in soil erosion investigations and related sediment budget studies has provided a widely used tool for improving understanding of soil erosion and sediment transfer processes.However,most studies using fallout radionuclides undertaken to date have focussed on small areas.This focus on small areas reflects both the issues addressed and practical constraints associated with sample collection and analysis.Increasing acceptance of the important role of fine sediment in degrading aquatic habitats and in the transfer and fate of nutrients and contaminants within terrestrial and fluvial systems has emphasised the need to consider larger areas and the catchment or regional scale.The need to upscale existing approaches to the use of fallout radionuclides to larger areas represents an important challenge.This contribution provides a brief review of existing and potential approaches to upscaling the use of fallout radionuclides and presents two examples where such approaches have been successfully applied.These involve a national scale assessment of soil erosion rates in England and Wales based on 137Cs measurements and an investigation of the sediment budgets of three small/intermediate-size catchments in southern Italy.