DEPTH PREDICTION OF RAIN WATER ON ROAD SURFACE BASED ON ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORK

A model based on the non-linear artificial neural network （ANN） is established to predict the thickness of the water film on road surfaces. The weight and the threshold can be determined by training test data, and the water film thickness on the road surface can be accurately predicted by the empirical verification based on sample data. Results show that the proposed ANN model is feasible to predict the water film thickness of the road surface.

Analysis of Different Rare Metals, and Rare Earth Metals in Harvested Rain Water in Gaza Strip/Palestine by ICP/MS-Data and Health Aspects

This rain water samples harvested for drinking and agriculture from Gaza collected in November 2012 were analyzed for different rare metals (Rb, Zr, Ti, Tl, Sb, Sc, Y), and rare earth metals (La, and Ce). These metals usually have no maximum acceptable limits as there is no sufficient data about their toxicity to human health. Their control should be therefore controlled in water to monitor their concentration in water (ground, harvested, etc.). This study was conducted to determine the water quality of harvested water which is used for drinking in the study area. 43 water samples were collected in November 2012 during the first rain from house wells and rain water pools. The concentrations of the metals detected in the collected harvested rainwater vary significantly between the 43 samples, and all of them were detected in all water samples analyzed in this study. The results obtained from this study suggest a possible risk to the population of the study area given the high concentration of some metals that have no maximum allowed concentration, and the fact that for many people in the study area, harvested rain water is a main source of their water supply.

Efficiency of Aluminium and Copper Coated Aluminium Electrode in Hydrogen Fuel Generation from Rain Water

Water electrolysis is considered as the most capable and old technology for hydrogen fuel preparation. Electrolysis needs external electrical energy through electrodes to split water into hydrogen and oxygen. An efficient electrolysis requires suitable electrodes to minimize potential drop. In this study Aluminium and Copper Coated Aluminium were used as different combination of Anodes and Cathodes to find out more efficient electrodes combination. NaCl solution in rain water was taken as electrolyte. Rain water was taken to avoid ionic impedance of tap water and expenses of distilled water. In this study, the most efficient electrode combination was Copper Coated Aluminium (anode)-Aluminium (cathode) and gave the highest efficiency of hydrogen production to about 11% at normal temperature for very low concentration of NaCl (0.051 M) which increased with temperature, up to 29% upon rising of temp to 60°C. It was showed that higher concentration of electrolyte would surge the efficiency significantly. If the supplied heat could be provided from any waste heat sources then this study would be more efficient. However, current research evaluated the technical feasibility of this electrode combination for producing hydrogen with electrolysis of rain water utilizing electricity and modified electrodes.

Rain Water Utilizing System Combing Artificial Wetland and Urban Drainage System

The method of utilizing rain water has been well developed in foreign countries to realize the sustainable development of water recourse while the method is still at the initial level in China. When considering the increasing of water shortage and urban flood, the awareness of utilizing rain water, as an inevitable trend, has been applied to various engineering technologies. This article has analyzed the principle of conventional road drainage system and the application of artificial wetland technology, also proposed to combine the road drainage system and artificial wetland, as a complex drainage system, to utilize the urban rain water, decrease urban flood pressure, and improve urban micro environment. The calculation principle and method for the complex drainage system are included as well.

Hydrochemistry of Rain Water and Atmospheric Pollution in Baghdad,Iraq

The atmospheric pollution in Baghdad was investigated by using rainwater as a media for monitoring of pollution and also compared with the atmosphere pollution at reference stations of Al-Sulaimaniya in north of Iraq and Al-Rutbah in Western Desert of Iraq. Rainwater sampling carried out at period extended from Nov.2007 to April 2008.Thirty five samples of rainwater were collected at seven monitoring

Evaluation of Rainwater Harvesting Methods and Structures Using Analytical Hierarchy Process for a Large Scale Industrial Area

In India, with ever increasing population and stress on natural resources, especially water, rejuvenation of rainwater harvesting (RWH) technique which was forgotten over the days is becoming very essential. Large number of RWH methods that are available in the literature are demand specific and site specific, since RWH system depends on the topography, land use, land cover, rainfall and demand pattern. Thus for each and every case, a detailed evaluation of RWH structures is required for implementation, including the analy-sis of hydrology, topography and other aspects like site availability and economics, however a common methodology could be evolved. The present study was aimed at evaluation of various RWH techniques in order to identify the most appropriate technique suitable for a large scale industrial area to meet its daily wa-ter demand. An attempt is made to determine the volume of water to be stored using mass balance method, Ripple diagram method, analytical method, and sequent peak algorithm method. Based on various satisfying criteria, analytical hierarchy process (AHP) is employed to determine the most appropriate type of RWH method and required number of RWH structures in the study area. If economy alone is considered along with hydrological and site specific parameters, recharging the aquifer has resulted as a better choice. However other criteria namely risk, satisfaction in obtaining required volume of water for immediate utilization etc. has resulted in opting for concrete storage structures method. From the results it is found that AHP, if used with all possible criteria can result in a better tool for evaluation of RWH methods and structures. This RWH structures not only meets the demand but saves transportation cost of water and reduces the dependability of the industry on irrigation reservoir. Besides monetary benefits it is hoped that the micro environment inside the industry will improve due to the cooling effect of the stored water.

Comparison of TRMM and Water District Rain Rates over New Mexico

This paper compares monthly and seasonal rain rates derived from the Version 5 （V5） and Version 6 （V6） TRMM Precipitation Radar （TPR, TSDIS reference 2A25）, TRMM Microwave Imager （TMI, 2A12）, TRMM Combined Instrument （TCI, 2B31）, TRMM calibrated IR rain estimates （3B42） and TRMM merged gauge and satellite analysis （3B43） algorithms over New Mexico （NM） with rain gauge analyses provided by the New Mexico water districts （WD）. The average rain rates over the NM region for 1998- 2002 are 0.91 mm d^-1 for WD and 0.75, 1.38, 1.49, 1.27, and 1.07 mm d^-1 for V5 3B43, 3B42, TMI, PR and TCA; and 0.74, 1.38, 0.87 and 0.97 mm d^-1 for V6 3B43, TMI, TPR and TCA, respectively. Comparison of V5 3B43 with WD rain rates and the daily TRMM mission index （TPR and TMI） suggests that the low bias of V5 3B43 for the wet months （summer to early fall） may be due to the non-inclusion of some rain events in the operational gauge analyses that. are used in the production of V5 3B43. Correlation analyses show that the WD rain rates vary in phase, with higher correlation between neighboring WDs. High temporal correlations （〉0.8） exist between WD and the combined algorithms （3B42, 3B43 and TCA for both V5 and V6） while satellite instrument algorithms （PR, TMI and TCI） are correlated best among themselves at the monthly scale. Paired t-tests of the monthly time series show that V5 3B42 and TMI are statistically different from the WD rain rates while no significant difference exists between WD and the other products. The agreements between the TRMM satellite and WD gauge estimates are best for the spring and fall and worst for winter and summer. The reduction in V6 TMI （-7.4%） and TPR （-31%） rain rates （compared to V5） results in better agreement between WD estimates and TMI in winter and TPR during summer.

Water use efficiencies of maize cultivars grown under rain-fed conditions

Enhancing water use efficiencies of rain-fed maize is a requirement for sustainable maize production, particularly in areas prone to low/drought and erratic rainfall patterns. This study was conducted to assess the relationship between total biomass/grain yield and water use efficiencies of three maize cultivars (Golden Crystal, Mamaba and Obatanpa) grown under rain-fed conditions in a coastal savannah agro-ecological environment of Ghana. Results of the study showed that a unified linear model, WUETDM = 0.03TDM with R2 = 0.765 and P ≤ 0.001, described adequately the relation between wa-ter use efficiency and total biomass (dry matter), which is applicable for the three maize cultivars for both the major and minor cropping seasons. A linear model could only, however, describe adequately well the relation between WUEGY and GY for the major (WUEGY = 0.001GY – 0.67;R2 = 0.996;P ≤ 0.001) and minor (WUEGY = 0.002GY + 0.289;R2 = 0.992;P ≤ 0.001) cropping seasons for all the maize cultivars. The linear models developed for the maize cultivars, re-lating WUEGY to GY, are specific to each of the crop growing seasons, indicating that seasonal rainfall impacts significantly on harvest index of the maize cultivars but differently in each of the crop growing seasons as a results of dif-ferences in seasonal rainfall. However, the models could be used to estimate water use efficiencies of each of the three maize cultivars given the appropriate TDM and GY as inputs for the environment under which the study was conducted.

Analysis of Vertical Profiles of Precipitable Liquid Water Content in a Tropical Climate Using Micro Rain Radar

In this paper, some distinctive features of the vertical profile of precipitable liquid water content (LWC) with considerable respect to rain rates (R) and radar reflectivity (Z) obtained in a tropical location are presented. Assessment of LWC allows applications in the specific area of flight icing severity, aviation safety as well as signals traversing through the atmosphere. The parameters were typically measured using vertically-pointing Micro Rain Radar (MRR) over a period of 2 years (2011-2012) at Akure, a tropical location of Nigeria. The radar scanned at every 10 seconds and integrated over one minute samples to reduce event logging error associated with the instrument. The vertical profile of the LWC typically reveals a prominent seasonal variation. However, majority of the LWC profiles has low LWC, less than 0.1 gm?3 while the maximum observed LWC is about 3.18 gm?3. A strong like hood relation was observed between the melting layer height and the LWC, with the LWC reaches peak at the considerable height of about 4160 m which coincides precisely with the freezing height level (rain height of ~4520 m) of the study location. Good correlation was also observed between the LWC and R in most of the heights considered. The results obtained will assist system engineers to assess the level of absorption, reflection and attenuation of electromagnetic signals as a result of precipitable LWC along the transmitting paths. The novelty of the present work is in the area of linking LWC and Z as against usual relation between Z and R.

A Review of Relationship Between Rattan and Water

The importance of water on rattan is described in the paper. Up to date, some researches have witnessed that rain determines the distribution and the number of species of rattan in wild, and is helpful to dispersal of rattan seeds with slope. Rattan plays a role in intercepting the splash effect of rain and improves the water holding capacity of soil. The viability of rattan seed decreases quickly with the decrease of water content of seeds, hence to reduce the germination rate of seeds. With enough water, rattan grows more quickly in terms of leaf, leaf area, and stem. Water stress improves the ratio of root to shoot of rattan, and humidity plays a role in the distribution and growth of rattan.

Supplying System for Drinking Water to Small Rural Communities with Zero Greenhouse Gasses: Sixteen Years of Experiences in Mexico

In Chiapas highlands to southeast of Mexico, the scarcity of water is worrying, according to technical reports of the IPCC the runoff will less between 150 to 250 mm per year in the southeast of Mexico, this situation will increase the problems of water availability in Chiapas highlands in the future. For actually more of 18,160 small rural indigenous communities (SRIC) in Chiapas there is not drinking water. In order to contribute a given solution to scarcity of drinking water in the SRIC, The Autonomous University of Chiapas (UNACH in its Spanish acronym) and Mexican Institute of Water Technology (IMTA in its Spanish acronym) designed and constructed in 1999 the Rain Water Harvesting (RWH) in Yalentay municipality of Zinacantan in Chiapas, Mexico. The scientific and technical contributions of RWH are: The design guarantee the water quality for a prolonged time of storage avoiding the photosynthesis inside the system;Not emitted greenhouse gasses because it doesn’t need any kind of fossil fuels;Not produces anything kind of damage to the environment;It has to be inexpensive, using in its construction manpower and materials from de region;Store the maximum quantity of water in the minimum space. The RWH has increased the standard of living of the habitants from Yalentay and improving their health conditions.

The Effects of Simulated Acid Rain on Photosynthetic Characteristics of Spring Wheat Leaves at the Jointing Stage

In order to investigate the effect of acid rain on photosynthetic characteristics of spring wheat,spring wheat at the jointing stage was sprayed with simulated acid rain at different pH levels of 1.5,2.5,3.5,4.5 and 5.6,and then,the photosynthetic parameters of spring wheat leaf was monitored.The results indicated that the pH value of simulated acid rain was positively and very significantly correlated with the net photosynthetic rate,stomata conductance,transpiration rate,water use efficiency and the chlorophyll relative content,whereas very significantly and negatively correlated with intercellular CO2 concentration.Due to acid rain,the net photosynthetic rate,stomata conductance,transpiration rate and the chlorophyll relative content decreased by 4.08%-67.04%,17.44%-58.44%,12.08%-48.08% and 12.16%-37.23% respectively,while intercellular CO2 concentration increased by 9.01%-14.29%.After simulated treatment with acid rain,the net photosynthetic rate had high significant positive correlation with stomata conductance,transpiration rate,water use efficiency,and the chlorophyll relative content,but high significant negative correlation with intercellular CO2 concentration.At the same time,transpiration rate was observed to be very significantly and positively correlated to stomata conductance and chlorophyll relative content,being significantly and positively correlated with water use efficiency,and very significantly and negatively correlated with intercellular CO2 concentration.In a word,the influence of simulated acid rain on photosynthetic characteristics of spring wheat leaf became more and more obvious with the increase of hydrogen ion concentration.

Bifunctional polyaniline electrode tailored hybridized solar cells for energy harvesting from sun and rain

Pursuit of energy-harvesting or-storage materials to realize outstanding electricity output from nature has been regarded as a promising strategy to resolve the energy-lack issue in the future. Among them,the solar cell as a solar-to-electrical conversion device has been attracted enormous interest to improve the efficiency. However, the ability to generate electricity is highly dependent on the weather conditions,in other words, there is nearly zero power output in dark-light conditions, such as rainy, cloudy, and night, lowering the monolithic power generation capacity. Here, we present a bifunctional polyaniline film via chemical bath deposition, which can harvest energy from the rain, yielding an induced current of 2.57 μA and voltage of 65.5 μV under the stimulus of real raindrop. When incorporating the functional PANi film into the traditional dye sensitized solar cell as a counter electrode, the hybridized photovoltaic can experimentally realize the enhanced output power via harvesting energy from rainy and sunny days. The current work may show a new path for development of advanced solar cells in the future.

Energy and Water Balance at Soil-Air Interface in a Sahelian Region

The aim of this work is an improvement of the parameterization of the soil moisture in the scheme of the Land Surface Process Model (LSPM) for applications over desert areas. In fact, in very dry conditions, the water vapour flux plays an important role in the evaporation processes and influences the underground profiles of humidity and temperature. The improved version of soil moisture parameterization in the LSPM scheme has been checked by using the data taken from the database of the field experiment HAPEX-Sahel (Hydrology-Atmosphere Pilot Experiment in the Sahel, 1990-1992). Model simulations refer to three dif- ferent stations located in Niger (Fallow, Millet and Tiger sites) where input data for LSPM and observations were simultaneously available. The results of simulations, taking into account the water vapour flux in the soil model LSPM, seem to compare better with the observed behaviour of soil moisture and turbulent heat fluxes than those overlooking the water vapour flux, confirming the great importance of the water vapour in such dry conditions.

基于DRAINMOD模型的雨水花园运行效果影响因素

为研究雨水花园对暴雨径流水文调控效果受不同设计参数的影响,在试验研究的基础上,利用排水模型DRAINMOD分析了雨水花园长期运行效果受其蓄水层深度、汇流面积比以及降雨特征等因素的影响。模型测试结果显示,DRAINMOD可以较好地模拟雨水花园内部水文过程;长序列(1951—2007年)模拟结果发现,试验雨水花园对暴雨径流量削减率的年均值为18.5%,经介质净化的水量占雨水径流总量的76.1%;雨水花园蓄水层深度超过某一临界值后对其滞留效果没有影响;汇流面积比增大,排水量和溢流量均增大;在雨水花园内部增加30 cm反硝化作用蓄水层后,排水量下降了19.2%,雨水花园对径流量的削减率提高到33.5%。可见,增加内部蓄水层后雨水花园对水量削减和污染物浓度去除都具有积极作用。

The Water Vapor Transport Model at the Regional Boundaryduring the Meiyu Period

The water vapor transport model at the regional boundary in the Meiyu period is put forward through diagnostic analysis. The numerical simulation on the water vapor transport at the boundary of China in the heavy rainfall period during June–July 1998 shows that the feature of water vapor transport in June is different from that in July. The main body of the water cycle that forms the torrential rain in the Yangtze River Valley is made up of water vapor transport at the western and southern boundaries of the China region in June, whereas the water vapor flow at the western boundary in middle Tibet turns out to be the main body of water vapor sources in July. The water vapor transport at the western boundary of the Tibetan Plateau and the southern boundary of China plays an important role in the torrential rain in the Yangtze River Valley. The temporal and spatial distribution characteristics of water vapor flow at the regional boundary and their theoretical model would provide the scientific proof for the heavy rain forecasts in the Yangtze River Valley.

Hydrological Processes in a Small Research Watershed under Forest Coverage in the Coast of Chiapas, Mexico

In the hydrological watershed, some natural processes take place in which the interaction of water, soil, climate and vegetation favors the capture of water. The present study aimed to evaluate preliminary information regarding the hydrological response and the water balance in a small research watershed with tropical forest cover (15°01'44''N and 92°13'55''W, 471 m, 2.3 has). Events of precipitation, direct runoff, infiltration rate and baseflow were performed. The amount, duration and intensity of rainfall events were recorded with the use of a pluviograph. Surface runoff was quantified with an established gauging station, an H-type gauging device and a horizontal mechanical gauging limnograph. Runoff base flow was measured at the gauging station using the volume-time method. Infiltration was measured using a triple ring infiltrometer, taking two measurements in the upper part and two in the lower part of the microbasin. Evapotranspiration was measured with the amount of rainfall entering and runoff leaving the watershed. In the study period, annual rainfall of 4417.6 mm distributed over 181 events were recorded;about 70% of the storms showed lower intensities at 20 mm·h-1. The total runoff was 345.8 mm caused by half of the rainfall events, which represents 7.8% of the total rain;77% of runoff events showed lower sheets of 5 mm and an average specific rate of 20.7 L·s-1·ha-1 with a maximum of 113.6 L·s-1·ha-1. Three runoff events were greater than 20.1 mm and caused the 22.5% of the total runoff depth in the study period showing the equilibrium conditions in the hydrological response of the forest. Water outputs like baseflow was 669.5 mm. In this way, 90% of the rainfall is infiltrated every year in the micro-watershed, which shows the importance of the plant cover in the hydrological regulation and the groundwater recharge.

Potato yield gaps across the rainfed Yin-mountain Hilly Area of China

Yin-mountain Hilly Area is one of the ideal regions for potato （Solanum tuberosum） production in China. However, potato yield is severely limited as a result of rain-fed crop mode due to water deficiency, as well as an inadequate farming practices. In this study, yield gaps were determined by using attainable yield （Ya） as a benchmark under optimized management practices, i.e., micro-ridge and side planting with plastic-mulching （MS）, and flat planting with plastic-mulching （PM）. The yields under MS and PM modes are defined as Yal and Ya2, respectively. Under the same field with MS and PM modes but different densities and fertilizer usages and so on, it was defined as simulated farmers＇ practices. The yield of simulated farmers＇ practices （Yfl） reached 57.3 and 69.6% of Yal and Ya2, respectively, while the average yield of 298 randomly surveyed farmers （Yf2） reached only 37.0 and 47.8% of Yal and Ya2 for rain-fed potato, respectively. The gaps of water use efficiency exhibited similar pattern. Further analysis shows that improper measures in rainwater conservation and accumulation, and other management practices contributed to 18.5, 18.2, and 42.6% of yield gap between Yal and Yf2. Improper nutrition management, including overuse of nitrogen and the deficiency of phosphorus andpotassium supplication, was one of the important reasons of yield gap. The results indicate the possibilities of increasing rain-fed potato yields by optimized water and fertilizermanagements in the Yin-mountain Hilly Area.

The enduring link between forest cover and rainfall： a historical perspective on science and policy discussions

Background： This article traces the history of scientific ideas connecting forest cover with rainfall to inform ongoing debates about whether forests are net users or producers of water in the hydrological cycle. Scholars of the supply-side school argue that forests are net producers and magnifiers that increase rainfall at regional scales. Supply-side scholars seek to challenge the dominance of demand-side thinking. The demand-side school emphasizes that trees are net users of water within a catchment that decrease overall water available for other users. This scientific debate has significant implications for the development of policies to manage forests and water. Results： Scientists have debated the question of whether forests improve or worsen water balance for over two hundred years. Connections between forests and rainfall gained prominence in scientific circles during the second half of the nineteenth century and again during the past three decades. The popularity of forest- rainfall connections has paralleled societal and scientific interest in anthropogenic climate change and deforestation. Theories connecting forests with rainfall peaked in popularity in the 1850s to 1880s, a period when scientists expressed alarm that deforestation caused regional declines in precipitation. Forests were understood to create rain within a locality and region. Scientific consensus shifted by the early twentieth century to the view that forests did not play a significant role in determining rainfall. The forest-rainfall connection reemerged in the 1980s alongside advances in climate modelling and growing fears of anthropogenic global warming and tropical deforestation. Using new data and theories, supply-side advocates have once again placed a strong forest-rainfall connection into scientific prominence. Conclusion： Supply-side management policies have a checkered history that should elicit caution, while demand-side policies, which are based on almost a century of hydrological research, should not be overturned quickly in regions that face potential water scarcity before more research is conducted.