Impact of pH on Microbial Biomass Carbon and Microbial Biomass Phosphorus in Red Soils

The impact of pH changes on microbial biomass carbon (Cmic) and microbial biomass phosphorus (Pmic)were examined for 3 red soils under citrus production with different lengths of cultivation. Soil pH significantly affected Cmic and Pmic. The Cmic and Pmic changes, as a function of soil pH, appeared to follow a normal distribution with the original soil pH value at the apex and as pH increased or decreased compared to the original soil pH, Cmic and Pmic declined. Moreover, there were critical pH values at both extremes (3.0 on the acidic side and 8.0 to 8.5 on the alkaline side), beyond which most of microorganisms could never survive.The effect of pH on Cmic and Pmic was also related to the original soil pH. The higher the original soil pH was, the less Cmic or Pmic were affected by pH change. It is suggested that soil microorganisms that grow in a soil environment with a more neutral soil pH range (I.e. pH 5.5-7.5) may have a greater tolerance to pH changes than those growing in more acidic or more alkaline soil pH conditions.

Leaching and Redistribution of Nutrients in Surface Layer of Red Soils in Southeast China

The leaching and redistribution of nutrients in the surface layer of 4 types of red soils in SoutheastChina were studied with a lysimeter experiment under field conditions. Results showed that the leachingconcentrated in the rainy season (from April to June). Generaily, the leaching of soil nutrients from thesurface layer of red soils was in the order of Ca > Mg > K > NO3-N. In fertilization treatment, the totalamount of soil nutrients leached out of the surface layer in a red soil derived from granite was the highest inall soils. The uptake by grass decreased the leaching of fertilizer ions in surface layer, particularly for NO3-N.Soil total N and exchangeable K, Ca and Mg in the surface layer decreased with leaching and grass uptakeduring the 2 years without new fertilization of urea, Ca(H2PO4)2, KCl, CaCO3 and MgCO3. Ca movedfrom the application layer (0~5 cm) of fertilizer and accumulated in the 10~30 cm depth in the soils studiedexcept that derived from Quaternary red clay. The deficiency of soil exchangeable K will become a seriousdegradation process facing the Southeast China.

Accumulation of Organic Matter in Infertile Red Soils and Its Ecological Importance

Field experiments on the decomposition of organic materials and the accumulation of organic carbon ininfertile red soils were conducted at the Ecological Experimental Station of Red Soil, the Chinese Academyof Sciences, and the potential of CO2 sequestration by reclamation and improving the fertility of these soils was estimated. Results showed that in infertile red soils, the humification coefficients of organic materials were rather high, ranging from 0.28 to 0.63 with an average of 0.43, which was 41% higher than those incorresponding red soils with medium fertility. This was mainly attributed to the high clay content, highacidity and low native organic matter content of infertile red soils. Compared to those in correspondingnormal red soils, the decomposition rates of organic materials were significantly lower in infertile red soilsin the first 2 yearst thereafter no significant difference was observed between those in the two kinds of soils.Depending on the kind and amount of organic manure applied, the soil properties and the rotation systems,annual application of organic manure with a rate of 4500 to 9000 kg ha-1 increased the organic carboncontent in surface 20 cm of infertile red soils by 2.1~7.5 g kg-1 with an average of 4.7 g kg-1 within the first5 years. The organic carbon content in infertile red soils which received organic manure annually increasedlinearly in the first 10 years, thereafter it slowed down, implying that the fertility of the infertile red soilscould reach middle or high level in 1O years if the soil was managed properly It was estimated that throughexploitation of wastelands, re-establishment of fuel forests and improvement of soil fertility, soils in red soilregion of China could sequester an extra 1.50 × 1015 g of atmospheric CO2.

Effect of land use on microbial biomass－C, －N and －P in red soils

Eleven red soils varying in land use and fertility status were used to examine the effect of land use on microbial biomass C, N and P. Microbial biomass C in the red soils ranged from about 68 mg C/kg to 225 mg C/kg, which is generally lower than that reported from other types of soil, probably because of low organic matter and high acidity in the red soils. Land use had considerable effects on the amounts of soil C mic . The C mic was the lowest in eroded fallow land, followed by woodland, tea garden, citrus grove and fallow grassland, and the highest in vegetable and paddy fields. There was significant correlation between C mic and organic matter content, suggesting that the influence of land use on C mic is mainly related to the input and accumulation of organic matter. Microbial biomass N in the soils ranged from 12.1 Nmg/kg to 31.7 Nmg/kg and was also affected by land use. The change of N mic with land use was similar to that of C mic . The microbial C/N ratio ranged from 5.2 to 9.9 and averaged 7.6. The N mic was significantly correlated with soil total N and available N. Microbial biomass P in the soils ranged from 4.5 mg P/kg to 52.3 mg P/kg. The microbial C/P ratio was in the range of 4-23. The P mic was relatively less affected by land use due to differences in fertilization practices for various land use systems.

Preliminary Study on Element Leaching and Current Soil-Forming Process of Red Soils

The leaching characteristics and the element concentration in soil solution of red soils derived from sandstone,granite,Quaternary red clay and basalt have been studied in the Red Earth Ecological Experimental Station,Academia Sinica,using 12 lysimeters.Results obtained show that the element leaching process of red soils occurs mainly from January to the beginning of July annually.The elements with higher concentration in leaching solution of red soils are Si,Ca,Na,K,Mg,and N.The desilication and the leaching process of base cations occur simultaneously in the red soils.Using the first order differential equation and measured parameters of Si leaching,the leaching models of Si for red soils derived from different parent materials are constructed.The leaching process of Si is simulated with the models.Both the absolute and relative ages of red soils derived from different parent materials are discussed based on the simulation result.On the basis of element leaching,composition of soil solution and thermodynamics,the current soil-forming process is discussed.According to the phase diagram,the kaolinization is prevailing in the current formation of different red soils.

Fertility Restoration of Red Soils in Low-Hilly Region of Middle Subtropical China

There are about 1.27 million ha of upland red soils derived from Quaternary red clay facing the degradation in the low-hilly region of the middle subtropical China. From the aspects of chemistry, physics and microbiology, the processes of soil fertility restoration in the surface layer (0～20 cm) under three types of land use patterns (i.e. citrus orchard, tea garden and upland) in two provinces were studied in this work. Results showed that the reclamation of eroded waste land improved most of soil properties. Soil organic matter, total N and P, available P and K, and exchangeable Ca and Mg increased, but soil total K and exchangeable Al decreased. Soil PH decreased by 0.5 unit in the pure tea plantation for 20 years. Soil reclamation increased the percentage of soil microaggregates (<0.25 mm), especially those with a diameter of 0.02～0.002 mm. Soil total porosity increased in the cultivated lands with the increase of soil aeration and capillary porosity. The number of soil microorganisms increased with reclamation caused mainly by the huge increase of the total amount of bacteria. With the cultivation, the activity of soil urease and acid phosphatase increased, but that of invertase dropped.

Calibration of K_(EC) Value in Acidic Red Soils with Fumigation-Extraction Method

Commonly used KEC value (0.45) of the fumigation-extraction (FE) method was obtained on the basis of temperate neutral soils. To ascertain its applicability to acidic red soils widespread in southern China and other subtropical regions, the KEC value was investigated based on 8 acidic red soils by in situ labelling of native soil microorganisms using 14C-labelled glucose. Realistic KEC value for red soils could be obtained by in situ 14C-labelling as long as an incubation period of 72 h is adopted after addition of 14C glucose to soil. The single KEC values for the eight red soils ranged from 0.27 to 0.35 and averaged 0.31. Lower KEC value obtained in red soils probably resulted from different soil quality, compared with other types of soil,which causes possible changes in microbial community structure and extractability of cellular component.Microbial biomass C contents of the eight red soils measured using a unique and constant KEC value of 0.45 decreased by 22.2%～40% in comparison to those using variable KEC values. The results suggest that microbial biomass C would be significantly underestimated using the present KEC value and a calibration of the KEC value is necessary for red soils.

Kinetics comparison on simultaneous and sequential competitive adsorption of heavy metals in red soils

To compare the adsorption kinetics of Cu, Zn and Cd introduced into red soils simultaneously and sequentially as well as their distribution coefficients, the ability of red soils to retain heavy metals was evaluated by performing batch experiments. The results indicate that Cu is preferentially adsorbed by red soils no matter in simultaneous or in sequential situation. The adsorption amount of Cd is the minimum in simultaneous competitive adsorption experiment. As heavy metals are added into red soils sequentially, the heavy metal adsorptions are relatively hard to reach equilibrium in 2 h. Red soils retain more Cd than Zn, which is opposite to the result in simultaneous adsorption. The addition sequences of heavy metals affect their adsorbed amounts in red soils to a certain extent. The joint distribution coefficients of metals in simultaneous adsorption are slightly higher than those in sequential adsorption.

Composition and Characteristics of Organo-Mineral Complexes of Red Soils in South China

The objective of the present study is to reveal the composition and characteristics of organo-mineral complexes in red soils (red soil, lateritic red soil and latosol) of south China in terms of chemical dissolution and fractional peptization methods. In the combined humus, most of the extractable humus could dissolve in 0.1 M NaOH extractant and belonged to active humus (H1), and there was only a small amount of humus which could be further dissolved in 0.1 M Na4P2O7 extractant at pH 13 and was stably combined humus (H2). The H1/ H2 ratio ranged from 3.3 to 33.8 in red soils, and the proportions of both H, and total extractable organic carbon (H1+H2) in total soil organic carbon and the ratios of H1 to H2 and H1 to (H1 +H2) were all higher in lateritic red soil and latosol than in red soil. The. differences of combined humus composition in various red soils were directly related to the content of Fe and Al oxides. In organo-mineral complexes, the ratio of Na-dispersed fraction (G1) to Na-ground-dispersed fraction (G2) was generally smaller than 1 for red soils, but there was a higher G1 / G2 ratio in red soil than in lateritic red soil and latosol. G1 fraction had a higher content of fulvic acid (FA), but G2 fraction had a higher content of humic acid (HA). The ratios of H1 to H2 and HA to FA were higher in G2 than in G1. The differences in the composition and activity of humus between G1 and G2 fractions were related to the content of free Fe and Al oxides. The quantities of complex Fe and Al, the Fe/ C and Al/ C atomic ratios were higher in G2 than in G1, and the ratio of Al/ C was much higher than that of Fe/ C. It may be deduced that aluminum plays a more important role than iron in the formation process of organo-mineral complexes in red soils.

Ecological and Economic Benefits of Vegetation Management Measures in Citrus Orchards on Red Soils

A three-year experiment was conducted to investigate and compare the economic and ecological benefits of six types of vegetation management measures in citrus orchards of the hilly red soil region of the eastern part of China.Six vegetation treatments,including tillage without herbicide(clean tillage)and no tillage without herbicide(sod culture) and with herbicide paraquat(paraquat),glyphosate(glyphosate),glyphosate-glyphosate-paraquat(G-G-P),and paraquat- paraquat-glyphosate(P-P-G),were applied in the citrus orchards on a clayey red soil with slopes of 8°and 13°and a sandy soil with slope of 25°.The results showed that the sod culture,paraquat,glyphosate,G-G-P,and P-P-G treatments reduced surface runoff by 38.8%,42.5%,18.7%,28.7%,and 37.5%,then the soil-water losses by 55.5%,51.7%,39.9%,46.8%, and 50.0%,and the N,P,and K nutrient losses by 60.3%,50.2%,37.0%,41.8%,and 45.4%,respectively,as compared with the clean tillage treatment.The weed regeneration ratios with the treatments of clean tillage without herbicide,paraquat, glyphosate,G-G-P,and P-P-G were reduced by 55.1%,67.2%,30.3%,36.8%,and 51.2%,respectively,as compared with the sod culture.The sod culture,paraquat,glyphosate,G-G-P,and P-P-G treatments could increase the soil fertility (annual accumulation of N,P,K,and OM)by 7.1%,6.9%,5.3%,6.2%,and 6.6%,respectively,whereas the clean tillage treatment without herbicide reduced soil fertility by 4.4% after the three-year experiment.The citrus fruit yields in the treatments of paraquat,glyphosate,G-G-P,and P-P-G increased by 7%-10%;the soluble solid,total sugar,total acidity,sugar-acid ratio,and single fruit weight of citrus fruits of all treatments except sod culture significantly(P>0.05) exceeded that of the clean tillage treatment.In general,the paraquat treatment showed the best economic and ecological benefits among the six treatments;therefore,it could be regarded as the best available vegetation management measure in citrus orchards of hilly red soil region to retain water and soil,enhance soil fertility,and improve the yield and quality of citrus.

Water Budget Analysis of Red Soils in Central Jiangxi Province, China

The daily soil water budgets in the red soil areas of central Jiangxi Province,southern China,were investigated with a large-scale weighing lysimeter and runoff plots. From 1998 to 2000,peanuts (Arachis hypogaea L.) and rape (Brassica napus L.) were planted in the lysimeter and in 1999,peanuts were planted in the runoff plots. The soil water budget components including rainfall,runoff,percolation and evapotranspiration were measured directly or calculated by Richards' equation and water balance equation. The results showed that most rainfall,including rainstorms,occurred from March to July,and induced the greatest soil water percolation during the year. The evapotranspiration was still large from July to September when rainfall was minimal. Thus,the lack of synchronization in soil water inputs and losses was disadvantageous to crops growing in this region. Among the soil water losses,percolation was the largest,followed by evapotranspiration,and then soil runoff. Runoff was very small on farmland with crops. It was significantly different from the uncultivated uplands where large-scale runoff was usually reported. The soil water storage fluctuated sinusoidally,with a large amplitude in the rainy season and a small amplitude in the dry season.

Phospholipid Fatty Acid Profiles of Chinese Red Soils with Varying Fertility Levels and Land Use Histories

Analysis of phospholipid fatty acids (PLFAs) was used to estimate the microbial community structures of eight Chinese red soils with different fertility levels and land use histories. The total amounts of PLFAs in the soils were significantly correlated with soil organic carbon, total nitrogen, microbial biomass C and basal respiration, indicating that total PLFA was closely related to fertility and sustainability in these highly weathered soils. Soils for the eroded wasteland were rich in Gram-positive species. When the eroded soils were planted with citrus trees, the soil microbial population had changed little in 4 years but took up to 8-12 years before it reached a significantly different population. Multivariate analysis of PLFAs demonstrated that land use history and plant cover type had a significant impact on microbial community structure. However, the difference of soil microbial community structure in the paddy field compared to other land uses was not larger than expected in this experiment.

Effect of copper on phospholipid fatty acid composition of microbial communities in two red soils

The phospholipid fatty acid （PLFA） composition was analyzed in two red soils experimentally contaminated with copper at different concentrations. The total amounts ofphospholipid fatty acids （PLFAs） in both red soils were significantly correlated with soil microbial biomass C and N, which decreased consistently with increasing levels of copper. The relative quantities of the PLFAs 17：0 （10 Me）, i16：0, il 5：0 and 16：1w5c, decreased with increasing heavy metal concentration, while those of cyl7：0, which is an indicator of gram-negative bacteria, increased. The Shannon index calculated from the PLFA data indicated that Cu addition in the red soils decreased the population diversity of soil microbial communities. Multivariate analysis of PLFA data demonstrated that high levels of Cu application had a significant impact on microbial community structure and there is a threshold metal concentration for PLFA composition. Comparatively higher toxic effect on microbial biomass and community structure were found in the red sandy soil than those in the red clayey soil. The differential effect of Cu addition on microbial communities in the two soils may be due to differences in soil texture and cation exchange capacity.

Effect of Electrolytes on Surface Charge Characteristics of Red Soils

The zero point of charge (ZPC) and the remaining charge σp at ZPC are two important parameters characterizing surface charge of red soils.Fourteen red soil samples of different soil type and parent material were treated with dithionite-citrate-dicarbonate (DCB) and Na2CO3 respectively.ZPC and σp of the samples in three indifferent electrolytes (NaCl,Na2SO4,and NaH2PO4) were determined.Kaolinite was used as reference.The results showed that ZPC of red soils was affected by the composition of parent materials and clay minerals and in significantly positive correlation with the content of total iron oxide (Fet),free iron oxide (Fed),amorphous iron oxide (Feo),aluminum oxide (Alo) and clay,but it was negatively correlated with the content of total silica (Sit).The σp of red soils was also markedly influenced by mineral components.Organic components were also contributing factor to the value of σp.The surface charges of red soils were evidently affected by the constitution of the electrolytes.Specific adsorption of anions in the electrolytes tended to make the ZPC of red soils shift to a higher pH value and to increase positive surface charges of the soils,thus leading to change of the σp value and decrease of the remaining net negative charges,even to the soils becoming net positive charge carriers.The effect of phosphate anion was greater than that of sulfate ion.

Analysis and Assessment on the Heavy Metals in a Severely Degraded Subtropical Red Soil Region

5 different forests of Pinus massoniana, Schima superba, Liquidambar formosana, P. massoniana × S. superba, P. massoniana × L. formosana as the research object were set up to study the Cr, Cu and Zn content of degraded red soil region in subtropics. The soil heavy metal pollution degree was evaluated by national environmental quality standard (II class). The results showed that three soil metals of P. massoniana × S. superba were the highest, and the soil metals enrichment ability was strong. The order of single factor pollution index of metal elements was Cu (1.38) > Cr (0.81) > Zn (0.42), and moderately pollution, pollution warning and no pollution, respectively. There was no significant correlation between three soil heavy metals and soil total carbon (TC), total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorus (TP). These results suggested that the accumulation of heavy metal elements was not derived from the parent material of soil. There was a significant positive correlation between the three metal elements which indicated that the sources of the three elements were similar. The structural equation model showed that the direct and indirect effects among the influencing factors ultimately affected the activity of heavy metals by cascade effects.

Formation and Water Stability of Aggregates in Red Soils as Affected by Organic Matter

The water stability of aggregates in various size classes separated from 18 samples of red soils under different managements, and the mechanisms responsible for the formation of water-stable soil aggregates were studied. The results showed that the water stability of soil aggregates declined with increasing size, especially for the low organic matter soils. Organic matter plays a key role in the formation of water-stable soil aggregates. The larger the soil aggregate size, the greater the impact of organic matter on the water stability of soil aggregates. Removal of organic matter markedly disintegrated the large water-stable aggregates (> 2.0 mm) and increased the small ones (< 0.25-0.smm) to some extent, whereas removal of free iron(aluminium) oxides considerably destroyed aggregates of all sizes, especially the < 0.25-0.5 mm classes. The contents of organic matter in water-stable aggregates increased with aggregate sizes. It is concluded from this study that small water-stable aggregates (< 0.25-0.5 mm) were chiefly cemented by Fe and Al oxides whilst the large ones (> 2.0 mm) were mainly glued up by organic matter. Both free oxides and organic matter contribute to the formation and water stability of aggregates in red soils.

Using Sorghum Stalk as a Partial Replacement of Lime in the Stabilization of Red Clay Soil for Road Sub-Grade Construction

This research aimed at testing the viability of using Sorghum Stalk Ash (SSA) as a partial replacement of lime in the stabilization of red clay soils for road subgrade construction. Red clay soils have been identified as highly expansive soils, which are affected by both climatic conditions and loading patterns. The consideration of both traffic loading patterns and climatic effects on these soils has been taken into account. A penetration test of 2.5 mm has been used on both pure red soils and stabilized soils at 10% and 15% partial replacement of lime with SSA and showed an improvement in the CBR of stabilized red clay soils up to 11.6%. Again, the PI of stabilized soils at 15% partial replacement of lime reduced up to 11.2%. The results obtained on both CBR and PI of these red clay soils are within the recommended values for the effective subgrade required for laying both permanent and flexible pavements. As a result, a recommendation of making use of SSA to lower the quantities of lime and its costs used in the stabilization of highly expansive soils have been tested through this research. However, further research on a more percentage partial replacement of lime to improve the PI of these soils to below 10% while keeping the CBR levels within the road construction regulations is welcomed.

Response of Ecosystem Service Value Based on Land Use Changes and Analysis of its Driving Factors in Typical Hilly Region with Red Soil

The contribution rate of ecosystem service value variation was used to analyze the effects of land use changes on the changes of ecosystem service value in Xingguo County during 1996-2005.Grey integrated correlation was employed to explore the contribution level of the indicators such as total population,urbanization level,proportion of primary industry and investment of social fixed assets on ecosystem service value,and the correlation analysis was also carried out.The results showed that the ecosystem service value in Xingguo County during 1996-2005 mainly was woodland,and the decrease of woodland area was the major reason for the sustained reduction of ecosystem service value.With the further increase of market demand and the incentives of local government,the garden area rapidly increased during 2001-2005,and the influence degree of garden towards the changes of ecosystem service value was only second to woodland,ranking No.2.Four socio-economic indicators had different correlation degree with ecosystem service value during the different research periods.Total population,urbanization level and proportion of primary industry had high correlation degree with ecosystem service value,whereas the influence degree of various socio-economic indicators on ecosystem service value was equal with each other day by day.Urbanization level,investment of social fixed assets and total population had significant negative correlation with ecosystem service value,while the proportion of primary industry had positive correlation with ecosystem service value.

Influence of different phosphates on adsorption and leaching of Cu and Zn in red soil

Batch and soil column experiments were conducted to evaluate the influence of KH2PO4, （NH4）H2PO4and Ca（H2PO4）2on the adsorption and leaching characteristics of Cu and Zn in red soil. The results show that all the three phosphates can greatly improve the adsorption capacity of red soil for Cu and Zn, and the effect of different phosphates on Cu and Zn adsorption follows the order of Ca（H2PO4）2〉KH2PO4〉（NH4）H2PO4. The addition of phosphate has little effect on the mobility of Cu. Ca（H2PO4）2and （NH4）H2PO4 show a strong ability in immobilizing Zn while the immobilization ability of KH2PO4 is much weaker. All the three phosphates are helpful for modifying the partitioning of Cu and Zn from the non-residual phase to the residual phase; however, they could also enhance the contents of Cu and Zn associated with exchangeable and carbonates fractions.