Development of 400-μW cryogen-free dilution refrigerators for quantum experiments

We have successfully developed cryogen-free dilution refrigerators with medium cooling power that can be applied to quantum experiments. Breakthroughs have been made in some key technologies and components of heat switches and dilution units. Our prototype has been running continuously and stably for more than 100 hours below 10 m K, with a minimum temperature of 7.6 m K and a cooling power of 450 μW at 100 m K. At the same time, we have also made progress in the application of dilution refrigerators, such as quantum computing, low-temperature detector, and magnet integration. These indicators and test results indicate good prospects for application in physics, astronomy, and quantum information.

Magnetocaloric properties of phenolic resin bonded La(Fe,Si)13-based plates and its use in a hybrid magnetic refrigerator

We present a simple hot press-based method for processing La(Fe,Si)13-based compounds consisting of La–Fe–Co–Si–C particles and phenolic resin. The magnetic entropy change △S per unit mass for the La Fe_(10.87)Co_(0.63)Si_(1.5)C_(0.2)/phenolic resin compounds have nearly the same magnitude with the base materials. With the content of phenolic resin of 5.0 wt%, the compound conductivity is 3.13 W·m^(-1)·K^(-1). In order to measure the cooling performance of La(Fe,Si)13-based compounds,the La(Fe_(11.6-x)Co_(x))Si_(1.4)C_(0.15)(x =0.60, 0.65, 0.75, 0.80, 0.85)/phenolic resin compounds were pressed into thin plates and tested in a hybrid refrigerator that combines the active magnetic refrigeration effect with the Stirling cycle refrigeration effect. The test results showed that a maximum cooling power of 41 W was achieved over a temperature span of 30 K.

Performance optimization on finite-time quantum Carnot engines and refrigerators based on spin-1/2 systems driven by a squeezed reservoir

We investigate the finite-time performance of a quantum endoreversible Carnot engine cycle and its inverse operation-Carnot refrigeration cycle,employing a spin-1/2 system as the working substance.The thermal machine is alternatively driven by a hot boson bath of inverse temperatureβ_(h)and a cold boson bath at inverse temperatureβ_(c)(>βh).While for the engine model the hot bath is constructed to be squeezed,in the refrigeration cycle the cold bath is established to be squeezed,with squeezing parameter r.We obtain the analytical expressions for both efficiency and power in heat engines and for coefficient of performance and cooling rate in refrigerators.We find that,in the high-temperature limit,the efficiency at maximum power is bounded by the analytical valueη_(+)=√sech(2r)(1-η_(C)),and the coefficient of performance at the maximum figure of merit is limited byε_(+)=√sech(2r)(1+ε_(C))/sech(2r)(1+ε_(C))-εC)-1,whereη_(C)=1-β_(h)/β_(c)andε_(C)=β_(h)/(β_(c)-β_(h))are the respective Carnot values of the engines and refrigerators.These analytical results are identical to those obtained from the Carnot engines based on harmonic systems,indicating that the efficiency at maximum power and coefficient at maximum figure of merit are independent of the working substance.

Establishment of a Model for the Calculation of the COP of a Solar Adsorption Refrigerator

This paper deals with the evaluation of the Coefficient of Performance (COP) of solar adsorption refrigeration. In the literature, simulation models to predict the thermal behaviour and the coefficient of performance of these systems are uncommon. This is why we suggest a model to simulate the operation of the machine in a typical hot and dry climate of the city of Ouagadougou. The objective is to provide a model for calculating the COP from the measurement of the ambient temperature and the irradiation of a given site. Starting from mathematical modelling, a resolution and simulation were made with COMSOL software based on the Dubinin-Astakhov adsorption model, the heat transfer balance equations, and the Linear Driving Force (LDF) model to describe the thermal behaviour of the system. A one-week measurement sequence on the adsorption solar refrigerator at the Albert Schweitzer Ecological Centre (CEAS) validated the numerical results. The measurement shows that for the days with high sunshine, the temperature of the reaction medium reaches 110°C, and the pressure reaches 500 mbar. This leads to a production of cold that allows it to reach the temperature of -5°C at the evaporator. Under these conditions, the COP is worth 14%. These results are obtained both by numerical simulation using the COMSOL 5.1 software and after a measurement session on the solar refrigerator available to the CEAS. We obtained an experimental and theoretical coefficient of performance varying between 9% and 14% with a difference of between 0% and 3%. We conclude that our model is suitable to estimate the COP of any device based on its thermal properties, the ambient temperature and the irradiation of a given site.

Exergy Analysis of a Solar Vapor Compression Refrigeration System Using R1234ze(E)as an Environmentally Friendly Replacement of R134a

Refrigeration plays a significant role across various aspects of human life and consumes substantial amounts of electrical energy.The rapid advancement of green cooling technology presents numerous solar-powered refrigeration systems as viable alternatives to traditional refrigeration equipment.Exergy analysis is a key in identifying actual thermodynamic losses and improving the environmental and economic efficiency of refrigeration systems.In this study exergy analyze has been conducted for a solar-powered vapor compression refrigeration(SP-VCR)system in the region of Gharda颽(Southern Algeria)utilizing R1234ze(E)fluid as an eco-friendly substitute for R134a refrigerant.A MATLAB-based numerical model was developed to evaluate losses in different system components and the exergy efficiency of the SP-VCR system.Furthermore,a parametric study was carriedout to analyze the impact of various operating conditions on the system’s exergy destruction and efficiency.The obtained results revealed that,for both refrigerants,the compressor exhibited the highest exergy destruction,followed by the condenser,expansion valve,and evaporator.However,the system using R1234ze(E)demonstrated lower irreversibility compared to that using R134a refrigerant.The improvements made with R1234ze are 71.95%for the compressor,39.13%for the condenser,15.38%for the expansion valve,5%for the evaporator,and 54.76%for the overall system,which confirm the potential of R1234ze(E)as a promising alternative to R134a for cooling applications.

A Review on Technologies for the Use of CO2 as a Working Fluid in Refrigeration and Power Cycles

The use of carbon dioxide as a working fluid has been the subject of extensive studies in recent years, particularly in the field of refrigeration where it is at the heart of research to replace CFC and HCFC. Its thermodynamic properties make it a fluid of choice in the efficient use of energy at low and medium temperatures in engine cycles. However, the performance of transcritical CO2 cycles weakens under high temperature and pressure conditions, especially in refrigeration systems;On the other hand, this disadvantage becomes rather interesting in engine cycles where CO2 can be used as an alternative to the organic working fluid in small and medium-sized electrical systems for low quality or waste heat sources. In order to improve the performance of systems operating with CO2 in the field of refrigeration and electricity production, research has made it possible to develop several concepts, of which this article deals with a review of the state of the art, followed by analyzes in-depth and critical of the various developments to the most recent modifications in these fields. Detailed discussions on the performance and technical characteristics of the different evolutions are also highlighted as well as the factors affecting the overall performance of the systems studied. Finally, perspectives on the future development of the use of CO2 in these different cycles are presented.

Cooling High Power Dissipating Artificial Intelligence (AI) Chips Using Refrigerant

High power dissipating artificial intelligence (AI) chips require significant cooling to operate at maximum performance. Current trends regarding the integration of AI, as well as the power/cooling demands of high-performing server systems pose an immense thermal challenge for cooling. The use of refrigerants as a direct-to-chip cooling method is investigated as a potential cooling solution for cooling AI chips. Using a vapor compression refrigeration system (VCRS), the coolant temperature will be sub-ambient thereby increasing the total cooling capacity. Coupled with the implementation of a direct-to-chip boiler, using refrigerants to cool AI server systems can materialize as a potential solution for current AI server cooling demands. In this study, a comparison of 8 different refrigerants: R-134a, R-153a, R-717, R-508B, R-22, R-12, R-410a, and R-1234yf is analyzed for optimal performance. A control theoretical VCRS model is created to assess variable refrigerants under the same operational conditions. From this model, the coefficient of performance (COP), required mass flow rate of refrigerant, work required by the compressor, and overall heat transfer coefficient is determined for all 8 refrigerants. Lastly, a comprehensive analysis is provided to determine the most optimal refrigerants for cooling applications. R-717, commonly known as Ammonia, was found to have the highest COP value thus proving to be the optimal refrigerant for cooling AI chips and high-performing server applications.

Performance characteristics of an energy selective electron refrigerator with double resonances

This paper establishes the energy selective electron （ESE） engine with double resonances as a refrigerator in one dimensional （1D） system. It consists of two infinitely large electron reservoirs with different temperatures and chemical potentials, and they are perfectly thermally insulated from each other and interaction only via a double ＇idealized energy filter＇ whose widths are all finite. Taking advantage of the density of state and Fermi distribution in the 1D system, the heat flux into each reservoir may then be calculated. Moreover, the coefficient of performance may be derived from the expressions for the heat flux into the hot and cold reservoirs. The performance characteristic curves are plotted by numerical analysis. The influences of the resonances widths, the energy position of resonance and the space of two resonances on performance of the ESE refrigerator are discussed. The results obtained here have theoretical significance for the understanding of thermodynamic performance of the micro-nano devices.

Development of permanent magnetic refrigerator at room temperature

A reciprocating magnetic refrigerator was developed based on the active magnetic regeneration technology. Rare earth metal Gd and intermetallic compound LaFe11.2Co0.7Si1.1 were used as the magnetic operating materials in the machine. The particles of the magnetic operating materials, with diameter of 0.5-2 mm and total mass of 950 g, were mounted in the cooling bed. A magnetic field was assembled using NdFeB rare earth permanent magnets. It had the magnetic field space of Φ 34×200 and the magnetic induction of 1.5 T. The water at pH=10 is used as a heat transfer fluid. When the ambient temperature is 296 K, a temperature span of 18 K was achieved after operation of 45 min at a frequency of 0.178 Hz. The temperature span and the output power increase significantly with the increasing velocity of heat transfer.

Performance optimization analysis of a thermoelectric refrigerator with two resonances

Based on electron transport theory, the performance of kx and kr filtered thermoelectric refrigerators with two resonances are studied in this paper. The performance characteristic curves between the cooling rate and the coefficient of performance are plotted by numerical calculation. It is shown that the maximum cooling rate of the thermoelectric refrigerator with two resonances increases but the maximum coefficient of performance decreases compared with those with one resonance. No matter which resonance mechanism is used （kx or kr filtered）, the cooling rate and the performance coefficient of the kr filtered refrigerator are much better than those of the kx filtered one.

Experimental Study of Performance of Thermoelectric Refrigerator under Different Intensity of Heat Emission

Heat emission and the voltage are the main factors affecting the refrigerating capacity of semiconductor refrigerator.Some experiments were designed to obtain their influence on refrigerating capacity of semiconductor and the interaction between heat emission and the voltage.The results show that fixing the heat dissipation,there is an optimal working voltage for the semiconductor module;and if improving the heat emission,the refrigerating capacity increases and the optimal voltage becomes larger.This can provide the basis for the optimal design of semiconductor refrigeration.

A thermal entangled quantum refrigerator based on a two-qubit Heisenberg model with Dzyaloshinskii-Moriya interaction in an external magnetic field

Based on an isotropic two spin-1/2 qubits Heisenberg model with the Dzyaloshinskii-Moriya interaction in an ex- ternal magnetic field, we have constructed an entangled quantum refrigerator. Expressions for the basic thermodynamic quantities, i.e., the heat exchanged, the net work input, and the coefficient of performance, are derived. Some intriguing features and their qualitative explanations in zero and non zero magnetic fields are given. The influence of the thermal entanglement on the refrigerator is investigated. The results obtained here have general significance and will be helpful to understand the performance of an entangled quantum refrigerator.

Process Modeling and Dynamic Simulation for EAST Helium Refrigerator

In this paper,the process modeling and dynamic simulation for the EAST helium refrigerator has been completed.The cryogenic process model is described and the main components are customized in detail.The process model is controlled by the PLC simulator,and the realtime communication between the process model and the controllers is achieved by a customized interface.Validation of the process model has been confirmed based on EAST experimental data during the cool down process of 300-80 K.Simulation results indicate that this process simulator is able to reproduce dynamic behaviors of the EAST helium refrigerator very well for the operation of long pulsed plasma discharge.The cryogenic process simulator based on control architecture is available for operation optimization and control design of EAST cryogenic systems to cope with the long pulsed heat loads in the future.

Process Modeling and Control Simulation for a 500W@4.5K Helium Refrigerator

In order to investigate dynamic behaviors of a 500W@ 4.5K helium refrigerator,the process simulator has been completed. The cryogenic process model is described and main components are customized. The realtime communication between the process model and the control system has been achieved. Compared with the preliminary experimental data,the errors of temperatures during the process of 300 K-80 K are less than 10%.The process model is validated to predict the cool-down process very well. The controller parameters are tuned in simulation and applied to the actual refrigerator suitably. Based on the dynamic simulation,the operation of Joule-Thomson( JT) by pass valve has been optimized. And the cool- down process from 300 K to 4. 5 K has been simulated under the control programs. Simulation results indicate that this dynamic simulator based on actual control architecture is available to process control and operation optimization for the helium refrigerators.

Development of a cryogen-free dilution refrigerator

With thermal fluctuation strongly suppressed,low temperature environment is essential for studies of condensed matter physics and developments of quantum technologies.Ultra-low temperature below 20 m K has demonstrated its importance and significance in physical sciences and information techniques.Dilution refrigeration is by far the best feasible and reliable method to generate and keep lattice temperature in this range.With a potential shortage of helium supply,cryogen-free dilution refrigerator(CFDR),eliminating the necessity of regular helium refill,becomes the main facility for the purpose of creating ultralow temperature environments.Here we describe our successful construction of a CFDR which reached a base temperature of around 10.9 m K for continuous circulation and 8.6 m K for single-shot operation.We describe its operating mechanism and the designs of key components,especially some unique designs including heat switch and alumina thermal link.Possible improvements in the future are also discussed.

Evaluating the treatment of E-waste──a case study of discarded refrigerators

Disassembly and recycling of E-waste creates a series of environmental problems. The selection of a technologically reliable, environmentally friendly, economically affordable and socially acceptable recycling technology for E-waste is a significant question. This study establishes a Monte-Carlo mathematical model of cost minimization, given the constraints of environmentally sound handling of the e-waste, in the context of Crystal Ball risk assessment and evaluation software. By following the streams of the different treatment processes, which consist of various technologies including disassembly, recycling and disposal, the econom-ics of various possibilities were identified and the optimal recycling technology proposed. The key factors of the proposed scenarios were determined by using sensitivity analysis. The results of this study show that, for discarded refrigerators, the operating life span plays the key role. The model supports maintenance and resale of the short lived refrigerators. For the longer lived refrigerators material recycling is recommended by the model. Sensitivity analysis shows that purchase cost, plastic sale price, condenser sale price and disassembly costs are the main effects. This study provides a significant technical support for policy making in E-waste management.

DETERMINATIONSOFREFRIGERANTCHARGEOFAREFRIGERATORWHENREFRIGERANTISREPLACEDBYR134aORR152a

R134a and R152a are two promising refrigerants to replace R12 that depletes the ozone layer. This paper presents how to determine the charge accurately when R134a or R152a is used to replace R12 for household refrigerators. A lot of experiments are done on a household refrigerator in order to choose a correct void fraction correlation for density calculations in two phase region. For HFC 152a, Hughmark model is fairly accurate, whose error is -6.0% or so. For HFC 134a, both Tandon model and Premoli model can get good results, their errors are around -1.8%, -2.4% respectively.

Performance characteristics a nonlinear diode and optimal analysis of refrigerator

This paper establishes a model of a nonlinear diode refrigerator consisting of two diodes switched in the opposite directions and located in two heat reservoirs with different temperatures. Based on the theory of thermal fluctuations, the expressions of the heat flux absorbed from the heat reservoirs are derived. After the heat leak between the two reservoirs is considered, the cooling rate and the coefficient of performance are obtained analytically. The influence of the heat leak and the temperature ratio on the performance characteristics of the refrigerator is analysed in detail.

Conceptual Design of 25-Barrel Pellet Injector with Cycle Refrigerator for HL-2A Tokamak

The preliminary design of a multi-barrels pellet injector with cycle refrigerator as an advanced plasma-fuelling tool for HL-2A tokamak has been proposed. The design aims at precise temperature control, easy operation with high reliability and high flexibility. GM-cycle refrigerator and pipe-gun structure have been employed to produce 25 pellets in 25 gun barrels simultaneously and the design aims. have been accomplished. Prime design principle, engineering parameters, structure and layout of the cryostat components as well as calculation of heat load for the cryostat are presented.

Performance Analysis of an Irreversible Refrigerator with Finite Thermal Capacity Reservoirs

To explore the influence of heat reservoirs of total thermal capacity at high and low temperature side heat exchanger of an irreversible refrigeration cycle on the coefficient of performance,the cycle model is established. By using the irreversible thermodynamics,much progress had been made in the studies of thermal resistance,heat leak and irreversible factors on the cycle of the coefficient of performance. The analytical formula of coefficient of performance and the distribution ratio of total thermal capacity are derived when the total thermal capacity at high and low temperature side heat exchanger is a constant. The influences of cycle parameters and different kinds of irreversible factors on the coefficient of performance and the optimal distribution ratio are analyzed by numerical computation. The results indicate that the coefficient of performance increases with the increase of the total heat capacity,and decreases with heat leak and internal irreversible factors. Furthermore,the optimal distribution ratio of total thermal capacity,when coefficient of performance reaches the maximum value,only has a connection with the internal dissipation.