Knowledge on the home range size of a species or population is important for understanding its behavioral and social ecology and improving the effectiveness of conservation strategies. We studied the home range size o...Knowledge on the home range size of a species or population is important for understanding its behavioral and social ecology and improving the effectiveness of conservation strategies. We studied the home range size of two different-sized groups of golden snub-nosed monkeys(Rhinopithecus roxellana) in Shennongjia, China. The larger group(236 individuals)had a home range of 22.5 km2 from September2007 to July 2008, whereas the smaller group(62 individuals) occupied a home range of 12.4 km2 from November 2008 to July 2009. Both groups exhibited considerable seasonal variation in their home range size, which was likely due to seasonal changes in food availability and distribution. The home range in any given season(winter, spring, summer, or winter+spring+summer) of the larger group was larger than that of the smaller group. As the two groups were studied in the same area, with the confounding effects of food availability thus minimized, the positive relationship between home range size and group size suggested that scramble feeding competition increased within the larger group.展开更多
In primate species with social systems consisting of one-male breeding units （OMUs）, resident male takeover represents a major challenge to individual reproductive success and mating strategies. The golden snub-nose...In primate species with social systems consisting of one-male breeding units （OMUs）, resident male takeover represents a major challenge to individual reproductive success and mating strategies. The golden snub-nosed monkey （Rhinopithecus roxellana） is characterized by large multilevel societies （MLS） comprised of several OMUs and all-male units （AMUs）; however, the factors and mechanisms associated with resident male takeover, which offer important insight into primate reproduction and social strategies, are still poorly understood. Based on 5-year monitoring data from a free-ranging herd of golden monkeys from the Qinling Mountains in China, we categorized three phases of an OMU, that is, a rising phase, developing phase, and declining phase. The rising and declining phases were unstable periods in which male takeover in an OMU might occur. Factors causing takeover, such as leader male rank, fighting ability, reproduction rate, and affiliation （proximity, allogrooming）, were analyzed for males and females and for different OMUs. Results indicated that the new resident male＇s fighting ability was lower than that of the former resident male in 23 cases. After replacement, the rank order of the new resident male significantly declined. Females involved in a takeover increased their distance from the resident male and decreased mating frequency during the three months prior to takeover. Females with infants under one-year-old had a marked effect on the specific time of takeover occurrence. These results suggested that female choice was the main factor deciding whether a takeover attempt was successful. Furthermore, rather than male conflict, females more often initiated and affected takeover and outcome, implying that the social status and competitive ability of the males played lesser roles during takeover.展开更多
Growth hormone gene (GH) ofRhinopithecus roxellanae was amplified by PCR based on the sequences of the reported mammalian growth hormone gene for the first time. The amplified fragment was about 1.8 kb. It was cloned ...Growth hormone gene (GH) ofRhinopithecus roxellanae was amplified by PCR based on the sequences of the reported mammalian growth hormone gene for the first time. The amplified fragment was about 1.8 kb. It was cloned and its upper stream was sequenced. This sequencing region consists of a 5′flanking regulatory region, exon I and part of exon II, intron I of growth hormone gene. Comparing the corresponding sequences of growth hormone gene betweenRhinopithecus roxellanae and the porcine, we concluded that the homology reached 81% in the region, and there was high conservation in the 5′flanking sequence. The kinds of amino acids of exon I and exon II for about 90% were the same to those in pig. Many mutations occurred in the degenerate site of the triplet code. In the nucleotides of intron I, there were only 72% homologies with those in pig. It means that introns and 3′flanking sequence maybe play an important part in growth hormone gene regulation of the different animals.展开更多
Seasonal variation in environmental factors is vital to the regulation of seasonal reproduction in primates. Consequently, long-term systematic data is necessary to clarify the birth seasonality and pattern of primate...Seasonal variation in environmental factors is vital to the regulation of seasonal reproduction in primates. Consequently, long-term systematic data is necessary to clarify the birth seasonality and pattern of primates in highly seasonal environments. This study indicated that black-and-white snub-nosed monkeys （Rhinopithecus bieti） at Mt. Lasha exhibited strict birth seasonality with a pulse model. Infants were born with a certain degree of synchronization. Birth distribution showed three birth peaks, and the birth pattern showed a ＂V＂ style in even-numbered years and a gradual increase in odd-numbered years. The beginning date, end date and median birth date were earlier in even-numbered years than those in odd-numbered years. The higher latitude of their habitats, earlier birth date, shorter birth period, fewer birth peaks and stronger birth synchrony might be adaptations for strongly seasonal variation in climate and food resources. After the summer solstice when daylight length began to gradually shorten, R. bieti at Mt. Lasha started to breed during the period with the highest environmental temperature and food availability, which implied that photoperiod may be the proximate factor triggering the onset of estrus and mating. It appears that R. bieti coincided conception and mid-lactation with the peak in staple foods, and weaning with the peak in high quality of foods. Thus, food availability was the ultimate factor regulating reproductive seasonality, and photoperiod was the proximate factor fine-turning the coordination between seasonal breeding and food availability.展开更多
The dynamics of animal social structures are heavily influenced by environmental patterns of competition and cooperation.In folivorous colobine primates,prevailing theories suggest that larger group sizes should be fa...The dynamics of animal social structures are heavily influenced by environmental patterns of competition and cooperation.In folivorous colobine primates,prevailing theories suggest that larger group sizes should be favored in rainforests with a year-round abundance of food,thereby reducing feeding competition.Yet,paradoxically,larger groups are frequently found in high-altitude or high-latitude montane ecosystems characterized by a seasonal scarcity of leaves.This contradiction is posited to arise from cooperative benefits in heterogeneous environments.To investigate this hypothesis,we carried out a six-year field study on two neighboring groups of golden snub-nosed monkey(Rhinopithecus roxellana),a species representing the northernmost distribution of colobine primates.Results showed that the groups adjusted their movement and habitat selection in response to fluctuating climates and spatiotemporal variability of resources,indicative of a dynamic foraging strategy.Notably,during the cold,resource-scarce conditions in winter,the large group occupied food-rich habitats but did not exhibit significantly longer daily travel distances than the smaller neighboring group.Subsequently,we compiled an eco-behavioral dataset of 52 colobine species to explore their evolutionary trajectories.Analysis of this dataset suggested that the increase in group size may have evolved via home range expansion in response to the cold and heterogeneous climates found at higher altitudes or latitudes.Hence,we developed a multi-benefits framework to interpret the formation of larger groups by integrating environmental heterogeneity.In cold and diverse environments,even smaller groups require larger home ranges to meet their dynamic survival needs.The spatiotemporal distribution of high-quality resources within these expanded home ranges facilitates more frequent interactions between groups,thereby encouraging social aggregation into larger groups.This process enhances the benefits of collaborative actions and reproductive opportunities,while simultaneously optimizing travel costs through a dynamic foraging strategy.展开更多
Sleeping site locations are important to free-ranging primate groups.Sites are strategically selected by primates so as to optimize security,comfort and foraging efficiency.Data were collected on the distribution of s...Sleeping site locations are important to free-ranging primate groups.Sites are strategically selected by primates so as to optimize security,comfort and foraging efficiency.Data were collected on the distribution of sleeping sites of the Yunnan snub-nosed monkey(Rhinopithecus bieti)between Sep 2005 and Sep 2006 at Gehuaqing in Baimaxueshan Nature Reserve,China.We identified 54 sleeping sites,which were used 137 times during the study period.These sleeping sites were distributed throughout the monkey group’s total home range.R.bieti preferred certain sleeping sites over others:63%of the sleeping sites were used 2 or more times in 13 months.Groups reused locations in an unpredictable long-term pattern,but avoided using the same sleeping site on consecutive nights.To reduce the time and energetic costs of travel,monkeys preferred sleeping near commonly used feeding sites.We recorded 124 feeding sites in the home range,which were used 174 times.A total of 27 sleeping sites were also feeding sites,and all remaining sleeping sites were close to feeding sites.There was a positive correlation between the intensity of use of sleeping sites and feeding sites.The present study suggests that the availability and the location of immediate sources of food is a key factor in the choice of sleeping sites.展开更多
Although there are some reports that have described primates eating animals,it is unknown whether predation on vertebrates exists in herbivorous leaf-eating primates.We have witnessed firsthand wild Sichuan snub-nosed...Although there are some reports that have described primates eating animals,it is unknown whether predation on vertebrates exists in herbivorous leaf-eating primates.We have witnessed firsthand wild Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys(Rhinopithecus roxellana)preying on and consuming Eurasian blackbirds(Turdus merula)in the Qinling Mountains of China.This event suggests that R.roxellana,which has previously been described as a herbivorous leaf-eating primate,may be partially carnivorous and the correct classification of this species would be omnivorous.Furthermore,food-share behavior among higher-ranked members occurs in a one-male unit when vertebrate prey is hunted by this species.展开更多
Group living provides various advantages to individuals in regards to protection avoidance,intergroup competition,productive success and social information.Stable one-male units(OMUs)consist of relationships between t...Group living provides various advantages to individuals in regards to protection avoidance,intergroup competition,productive success and social information.Stable one-male units(OMUs)consist of relationships between the adult females and the resident male as well as the relationships among adult females.Based on continuous observation of a reproductive group of golden snub-nosed monkeys(Rhinopithecus roxellana)in the Qinling Mountains,we analyzed the relationships among adult individual dyads within 4 OMUs.The results indicated that in golden snub-nosed monkey societies,females not only had no strong tendency to build a relationship with the resident male in the OMU but also had no strong tendency to build relationships with other females in the OMU.In comparison with hamadryas(Papio hamadryas)and gelada baboons(Theropithecus gelada),the relationships within golden snub-nosed monkeys OMUs showed neither the star-shaped pattern observed in hamadryas baboons nor the net-shaped pattern observed in gelada baboons.We concluded that the relationships within golden snub-nosed monkey OMUs indicated a third pattern in nonhuman primate societies.Future research is required to determine the potential mechanisms for such a pattern.展开更多
The highly polymorphic genes within the major histocompatibility complex(MHC)not only play a major role in immunity resistance,but also seem to provide hints for mate choice in some animal populations.In the pres...The highly polymorphic genes within the major histocompatibility complex(MHC)not only play a major role in immunity resistance,but also seem to provide hints for mate choice in some animal populations.In the present study we investigated MHC-related mate choice in a small natural population(group size 40-55 individuals)of a polygynous primate,the Sichuan snub-nosed monkey(Rhinopithecus roxellana).We found that there was no evidence either for MHC-disassortative mating,or for females to mate with males based on MHC heterozygosity or specific alleles.Nevertheless,of the 11 alleles identified,we found that the frequencies of 2 alleles,Rhro-DRB2(P<0.01)and Rhro-DRB5(P<0.05)were higher in offspring than in their parents.These findings suggest that MHC-DRB in this population of R.roxellana is unlikely to be associated with mating preferences.Limited female opportunities for mate choice are likely due,in part,to the harem breeding structure present in R.roxellana,and the relatively small number of resident adult males in our study band(N=4-6).In addition,we suggest that differences in the frequency of particular alleles across generations may be linked to parasite resistance in a fluctuating environment;however,confirmation of this finding requires further study.展开更多
基金supported by the Hubei Provincial Key Laboratory for Conservation Biology of Snub-nosed Monkeys,Scientific Research Grant for Youth Scholars from the University of Chinese Academy of Sciences,L.S.B.Leakey Foundation,and Primate Conservation Inc.
文摘Knowledge on the home range size of a species or population is important for understanding its behavioral and social ecology and improving the effectiveness of conservation strategies. We studied the home range size of two different-sized groups of golden snub-nosed monkeys(Rhinopithecus roxellana) in Shennongjia, China. The larger group(236 individuals)had a home range of 22.5 km2 from September2007 to July 2008, whereas the smaller group(62 individuals) occupied a home range of 12.4 km2 from November 2008 to July 2009. Both groups exhibited considerable seasonal variation in their home range size, which was likely due to seasonal changes in food availability and distribution. The home range in any given season(winter, spring, summer, or winter+spring+summer) of the larger group was larger than that of the smaller group. As the two groups were studied in the same area, with the confounding effects of food availability thus minimized, the positive relationship between home range size and group size suggested that scramble feeding competition increased within the larger group.
基金funded by the National Science Foundation of China(31470455,31622053,31730104)National Key Program of Research and Development,Ministry of Science and Technology of China(2016YFC0503200)Northwest University Graduate Innovation and Creativity Funds(YZZ17156)
文摘In primate species with social systems consisting of one-male breeding units （OMUs）, resident male takeover represents a major challenge to individual reproductive success and mating strategies. The golden snub-nosed monkey （Rhinopithecus roxellana） is characterized by large multilevel societies （MLS） comprised of several OMUs and all-male units （AMUs）; however, the factors and mechanisms associated with resident male takeover, which offer important insight into primate reproduction and social strategies, are still poorly understood. Based on 5-year monitoring data from a free-ranging herd of golden monkeys from the Qinling Mountains in China, we categorized three phases of an OMU, that is, a rising phase, developing phase, and declining phase. The rising and declining phases were unstable periods in which male takeover in an OMU might occur. Factors causing takeover, such as leader male rank, fighting ability, reproduction rate, and affiliation （proximity, allogrooming）, were analyzed for males and females and for different OMUs. Results indicated that the new resident male＇s fighting ability was lower than that of the former resident male in 23 cases. After replacement, the rank order of the new resident male significantly declined. Females involved in a takeover increased their distance from the resident male and decreased mating frequency during the three months prior to takeover. Females with infants under one-year-old had a marked effect on the specific time of takeover occurrence. These results suggested that female choice was the main factor deciding whether a takeover attempt was successful. Furthermore, rather than male conflict, females more often initiated and affected takeover and outcome, implying that the social status and competitive ability of the males played lesser roles during takeover.
文摘Growth hormone gene (GH) ofRhinopithecus roxellanae was amplified by PCR based on the sequences of the reported mammalian growth hormone gene for the first time. The amplified fragment was about 1.8 kb. It was cloned and its upper stream was sequenced. This sequencing region consists of a 5′flanking regulatory region, exon I and part of exon II, intron I of growth hormone gene. Comparing the corresponding sequences of growth hormone gene betweenRhinopithecus roxellanae and the porcine, we concluded that the homology reached 81% in the region, and there was high conservation in the 5′flanking sequence. The kinds of amino acids of exon I and exon II for about 90% were the same to those in pig. Many mutations occurred in the degenerate site of the triplet code. In the nucleotides of intron I, there were only 72% homologies with those in pig. It means that introns and 3′flanking sequence maybe play an important part in growth hormone gene regulation of the different animals.
基金Foundation items： This study was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China （31160422, 30960084）, China Postdoctoral Science Foundation （2013M542379）, Program for New Century Excellent Talents in University （NCET-12-1079）, and Key Subject of Wildlife Conservation and Utilization in Yunnan Province We thank the directors and staff from the Administrative Bureau of Yunling National Reserve, Lanping County, Nujiang Prefecture, Yunan Province, the residents of Dashanqing village and assistants Qing-Sheng Su and Jin-Fu Zhang.
文摘Seasonal variation in environmental factors is vital to the regulation of seasonal reproduction in primates. Consequently, long-term systematic data is necessary to clarify the birth seasonality and pattern of primates in highly seasonal environments. This study indicated that black-and-white snub-nosed monkeys （Rhinopithecus bieti） at Mt. Lasha exhibited strict birth seasonality with a pulse model. Infants were born with a certain degree of synchronization. Birth distribution showed three birth peaks, and the birth pattern showed a ＂V＂ style in even-numbered years and a gradual increase in odd-numbered years. The beginning date, end date and median birth date were earlier in even-numbered years than those in odd-numbered years. The higher latitude of their habitats, earlier birth date, shorter birth period, fewer birth peaks and stronger birth synchrony might be adaptations for strongly seasonal variation in climate and food resources. After the summer solstice when daylight length began to gradually shorten, R. bieti at Mt. Lasha started to breed during the period with the highest environmental temperature and food availability, which implied that photoperiod may be the proximate factor triggering the onset of estrus and mating. It appears that R. bieti coincided conception and mid-lactation with the peak in staple foods, and weaning with the peak in high quality of foods. Thus, food availability was the ultimate factor regulating reproductive seasonality, and photoperiod was the proximate factor fine-turning the coordination between seasonal breeding and food availability.
基金supported by the Biodiversity Survey and Assessment Project of the Ministry of Ecology and Environment,China(2019HJ2096001006)National Natural Science Foundation of China(32001099,32170512,32370524)China Postdoctoral Science Foundation(2020M683539)。
文摘The dynamics of animal social structures are heavily influenced by environmental patterns of competition and cooperation.In folivorous colobine primates,prevailing theories suggest that larger group sizes should be favored in rainforests with a year-round abundance of food,thereby reducing feeding competition.Yet,paradoxically,larger groups are frequently found in high-altitude or high-latitude montane ecosystems characterized by a seasonal scarcity of leaves.This contradiction is posited to arise from cooperative benefits in heterogeneous environments.To investigate this hypothesis,we carried out a six-year field study on two neighboring groups of golden snub-nosed monkey(Rhinopithecus roxellana),a species representing the northernmost distribution of colobine primates.Results showed that the groups adjusted their movement and habitat selection in response to fluctuating climates and spatiotemporal variability of resources,indicative of a dynamic foraging strategy.Notably,during the cold,resource-scarce conditions in winter,the large group occupied food-rich habitats but did not exhibit significantly longer daily travel distances than the smaller neighboring group.Subsequently,we compiled an eco-behavioral dataset of 52 colobine species to explore their evolutionary trajectories.Analysis of this dataset suggested that the increase in group size may have evolved via home range expansion in response to the cold and heterogeneous climates found at higher altitudes or latitudes.Hence,we developed a multi-benefits framework to interpret the formation of larger groups by integrating environmental heterogeneity.In cold and diverse environments,even smaller groups require larger home ranges to meet their dynamic survival needs.The spatiotemporal distribution of high-quality resources within these expanded home ranges facilitates more frequent interactions between groups,thereby encouraging social aggregation into larger groups.This process enhances the benefits of collaborative actions and reproductive opportunities,while simultaneously optimizing travel costs through a dynamic foraging strategy.
基金supported by the project of NSFC(No.30970442,31200294)Foundation of Key Laboratory of Southwest China Wildlife Resources Conservation,Ministry of Education+10 种基金funded by grants to Cyril C.Grueter from the following institutions:Janggen-Pöhn-StiftungA.H.Schultz StiftungZürcher TierschutzZoological Society of San DiegoOffield Family FoundationAmerman FoundationPrimate ConservationG.and A.Claraz-SchenkungGoethe-StiftungJane Goodall Institute SchweizPrimate Action Fund of Conservation International.
文摘Sleeping site locations are important to free-ranging primate groups.Sites are strategically selected by primates so as to optimize security,comfort and foraging efficiency.Data were collected on the distribution of sleeping sites of the Yunnan snub-nosed monkey(Rhinopithecus bieti)between Sep 2005 and Sep 2006 at Gehuaqing in Baimaxueshan Nature Reserve,China.We identified 54 sleeping sites,which were used 137 times during the study period.These sleeping sites were distributed throughout the monkey group’s total home range.R.bieti preferred certain sleeping sites over others:63%of the sleeping sites were used 2 or more times in 13 months.Groups reused locations in an unpredictable long-term pattern,but avoided using the same sleeping site on consecutive nights.To reduce the time and energetic costs of travel,monkeys preferred sleeping near commonly used feeding sites.We recorded 124 feeding sites in the home range,which were used 174 times.A total of 27 sleeping sites were also feeding sites,and all remaining sleeping sites were close to feeding sites.There was a positive correlation between the intensity of use of sleeping sites and feeding sites.The present study suggests that the availability and the location of immediate sources of food is a key factor in the choice of sleeping sites.
基金on-going operating grants from the Natural Science Foundation of China(No.30770375,No.30570312 and No.30630016)the Cosmo Oil Eco Card Fund of Japan(2005–2010).
文摘Although there are some reports that have described primates eating animals,it is unknown whether predation on vertebrates exists in herbivorous leaf-eating primates.We have witnessed firsthand wild Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys(Rhinopithecus roxellana)preying on and consuming Eurasian blackbirds(Turdus merula)in the Qinling Mountains of China.This event suggests that R.roxellana,which has previously been described as a herbivorous leaf-eating primate,may be partially carnivorous and the correct classification of this species would be omnivorous.Furthermore,food-share behavior among higher-ranked members occurs in a one-male unit when vertebrate prey is hunted by this species.
基金funded by grants from the Key Program of National Natural Science Fund(31130061)the Special Foundation of Shaanxi Academy of Sciences,China(2012K-01)+4 种基金the Youth Foundation of Shaanxi Academy of Sciences,China(2013K-35)the Western Light Talent Culture Project(2011DF05)the National Nature Science Foundation of China(30970444,30970168,30970379)the Research Fund for the Doctoral Program of Higher Education of China(20106101110005)the Cosmo Oil Eco Card Fund of Japan(2005–2012).
文摘Group living provides various advantages to individuals in regards to protection avoidance,intergroup competition,productive success and social information.Stable one-male units(OMUs)consist of relationships between the adult females and the resident male as well as the relationships among adult females.Based on continuous observation of a reproductive group of golden snub-nosed monkeys(Rhinopithecus roxellana)in the Qinling Mountains,we analyzed the relationships among adult individual dyads within 4 OMUs.The results indicated that in golden snub-nosed monkey societies,females not only had no strong tendency to build a relationship with the resident male in the OMU but also had no strong tendency to build relationships with other females in the OMU.In comparison with hamadryas(Papio hamadryas)and gelada baboons(Theropithecus gelada),the relationships within golden snub-nosed monkeys OMUs showed neither the star-shaped pattern observed in hamadryas baboons nor the net-shaped pattern observed in gelada baboons.We concluded that the relationships within golden snub-nosed monkey OMUs indicated a third pattern in nonhuman primate societies.Future research is required to determine the potential mechanisms for such a pattern.
基金This project was supported by the Project of Public Benefit(No.201104073)the Natural Science Foundation of China(No.30970427,31130061)the National Key Technology R&D Program of China(2013BAD03B02).
文摘The highly polymorphic genes within the major histocompatibility complex(MHC)not only play a major role in immunity resistance,but also seem to provide hints for mate choice in some animal populations.In the present study we investigated MHC-related mate choice in a small natural population(group size 40-55 individuals)of a polygynous primate,the Sichuan snub-nosed monkey(Rhinopithecus roxellana).We found that there was no evidence either for MHC-disassortative mating,or for females to mate with males based on MHC heterozygosity or specific alleles.Nevertheless,of the 11 alleles identified,we found that the frequencies of 2 alleles,Rhro-DRB2(P<0.01)and Rhro-DRB5(P<0.05)were higher in offspring than in their parents.These findings suggest that MHC-DRB in this population of R.roxellana is unlikely to be associated with mating preferences.Limited female opportunities for mate choice are likely due,in part,to the harem breeding structure present in R.roxellana,and the relatively small number of resident adult males in our study band(N=4-6).In addition,we suggest that differences in the frequency of particular alleles across generations may be linked to parasite resistance in a fluctuating environment;however,confirmation of this finding requires further study.
