Evaluation of water resources conserved by forests in the Hani rice terraces system of Honghe County,Yunnan,China：an application of the fuzzy comprehensive evaluation model

The Hani Rice Terraces System, based on gravity-flow irrigation, is one of the Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems(GIAHS) pilot sites selected by FAO in 2010. The water resource plays an important role in the sustainable development of this system. The value of water conserved by the forest is influenced by natural, economic and social factors. In this paper, the water quality, per capita water resources, per capita GDP and population density are chosen as indices to construct an index system for a comprehensive evaluation of water resources value. The weights of these indices are 0.443, 0.31, 0.141 and 0.106 respectively, which are determined by the analytic hierarchy process(AHP) method. The water resources value has been assessed by the fuzzy comprehensive evaluation model. The results show that the water resources value in the Hani Rice Terraces System is 4.25 RMB/m^3. Evaluating the value of water resources in the Hani Rice Terraces System can provide a reference for ecological compensation, for raising public awareness of the importance of protecting the system, and ultimately achieving its sustainable development.

Values and Conservation of Honghe Hani Rice Terraces System as a GIAHS Site

Agri-cultural Heritage Systems（AHS） have not only various values but also important enlightening roles for modern agriculture.With agro-scientific and technological progress,the traditional agriculture that has lasted for thousands of years is declining gradually,thus is attached the importance of exploring and protecting our AHS.As a traditional agricultural system for 1300 years,the Honghe Hani Rice Terraces System（HHRTS） has many significant characteristics such as beautiful landscapes,distinctive rice varieties,ecologically clean agricultural production systems,systematic methods of managing water and soil and special ethnic culture.It was designated successively as a Globally Important Agricultural Heritage System（GIAHS） in 2010 and as a World Heritage（WH） in 2013.In this paper,taking HHRTS as an example,we analyzed the economic,ecological,aesthetic,cultural,and social values,as well as the research values,of the GIAHS.We conclude that the restrictions on increasing peasant earnings and improving their living standards are difficult with the low efficiency of traditional planting patterns and the single-industry structure of farming in rugged terrain.However,these restrictive factors are beneficial for developing some industries like green agriculture,organic agriculture or ecological food production because of the clean farmland environment.In the end,we propose the basic approaches to protect the Hani terraces agriculture system should include the local governments to encourage the development of ecotourism,organic agriculture and featuring agriculture by multi-mode economic compensation.It is very important for protecting terraces to coordinate benefits among corporations,governments and villagers by making reasonable policies of compensation.

Effects of Traditional Ecological Knowledge on the Droughtresistant Mechanisms of the Hani Rice Terraces System

The Hani Rice Terraces System is one of the Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems（GIAHS） sites which can successfully resist extreme droughts.The reason is not only that the forests and terraces have the important function of water conservation,which provide and conserve adequate water resources for this complex ecosystem,but also that Hani traditional ecological knowledge plays an important role in the drought-resistance process.In this paper,drought-resistant mechanisms of the Hani Rice Terraces System have been analyzed first,then Hani traditional ecological knowledge has been analyzed based on a comprehensive literature review,a questionnaire survey and key informant interviews.The results show that the Hani nationality has developed knowledge of water management techniques,including water conserving construction,water allocation and ditch management.The Hani people are also highly conscious of water resources protection.There is a good deal of forest resource management knowledge and worship of forests,which have effectively helped in protecting the forest ecological system.In the reclamation and maintenance of Hani terraced fields,the Hani people have developed a series of farming systems,which have effectively protected the terrace ecosystem.Through analyzing this knowledge of water management,forest resource management and Hani terraced fields management,our paper confirms the important role that traditional ecological knowledge plays in maintaining stability of the system and realizing the efficient use of water resource.This is not only helpful for preserving cultural heritage,but is vital for protecting the Hani Rice Terraces System as a whole.

Conceptual Framework for Key Element Identification in Important Agricultural Heritage Systems(IAHS):Case of Honghe Hani Rice Terraces System in China

With the continuous emergence of global development problems,the dynamic conservation and sustainable development of Important Agricultural Heritage Systems(IAHS)have been assigned greater importance.However,due to the complex structure,multi-component,dynamic,and open characteristics of IAHS,there are neglected problems which need to be solved in conservation practice,such as component element ambiguity,obscurity of the conservation redline,etc.This study defined the concept of key elements(KE)of IAHS,put forward a conceptual framework of KE identification,conducted empirical research by taking Honghe County of Honghe Hani Rice Terraces System(HHRTS)as an example and analyzed the level of recognition motivations for different stakeholder groups.The following conclusions were drawn:1)The KE of HHRTS are grain crops,rice species biodiversity,terrace construction and maintenance technique,Hani traditional festivals,Hani traditional foods,and virgin forest;2)The reasons behind the KE priorities of farmers,businessmen and tourists were at the micro level,the reasons of officers were at the middle level and the reasons of researchers were at the macro level.The empirical study conducted in HHRTS showed that the proposed conceptual framework could identify KE of IAHS effectively,and provided a theoretical perspective for the structuring of and essential need for IAHS research.Moreover,the KE recognition levels of different stakeholder groups reflected their potential action strategies.We should focus on the coherence of policies and measures in both the microscale and macroscale to balance the diversified demands of stakeholders,and to stimulate their enthusiasm for participation in the conservation in order to improve the management level of IAHS sites.

Flora, life form characteristics, and plan for the promotion of biodiversity in South Korea＇s Globally Important Agricultural Heritage System, the traditional Gudeuljang irrigated rice terraces in Cheongsando

The objectives of this study were to analyze the biodiversity of the Traditional Gudeuljang Irrigated Rice Terraces in Cheongsando, South Korea's representative GIAHS(Globally Important Agricultural Heritage System) site, with reference to position and land-use features, and to develop a plan to promote agricultural biodiversity in the region. We confirmed approximately 54,000 m2 of Gudeuljang paddy fields by an on-site survey. Of the Traditional Gudeuljang Irrigated Rice Terraces confirmed by onsite inspection, our survey showed that approximately 24,000 m2 are currently being used as paddy fields, approximately 15,000 m2 are being used as dry fields, and approximately 14,000 m2 are fallow. In terms of other non-agricultural land use, there was grassland, including graveyards; artificial arboreal land, such as orchards, rivers and wetlands, and man-made facilities, such as roads and residences. We also confirmed that the Traditional Gudeuljang Irrigated Rice Terraces had higher plant species diversity than conventional terraced rice paddies, and there was a difference in life form characteristics between the two types. Although the superficial topsoil structure is thesame for the Traditional Gudeuljang Irrigated Rice Terraces(TGIRTs) and conventional terraced rice paddies, it is thought that the differences in the subsurface structure of the TGIRTs contribute greatly to species and habitat diversity. However, the TGIRTs in Cheongsando are facing degeneration, due to damage and reduction in agricultural activity. The main cause is the reduction in the number of farming households due to an aging population in Cheongsando. In order to address this problem, we proposed a management plan, related to fallow paddy fields in South Korea, to initiate voluntary activities in the TGIRTs.

Observation-Oriented Causal Discovery for Cultivation Abandonment of Rice Terraces: Focusing on an Effect of Cultural Endemism on Decision-Making in Toraja, Indonesia

Previous discussion about the factors of the expanding trend of abandoned cultivation had focused only on universal factors and lacked evaluation of the regionality of the phenomenon. This paper demonstrated the Toraja’s regional characteristics and the influence of cultural endemism on decision-making about abandoning cultivation by an observation-oriented approach. Based on a causal framework constructed by field observation and geospatial data generation, an adjustment for overt covariates using the multivariate logistic regression model to draw the causal effect from hidden covariates was examined in two rice terraces with different water systems, i.e. irrigated field and rain-fed field. The result of sub-group analysis revealed that decisions about abandoning cultivation in Toraja were greatly associated with disadvantageous factors for intensive farming, i.e. “number of adjacent fields” and “soil erosion” rather than advantageous factors, i.e. “area of field” and “distance to roads”. Moreover, the result of interaction analysis which controlled the effect of topography revealed the powerful effect of particular decision factors only in rain-fed rice terrace: the “distance to roads” factor’s fairly negative contribution on abandoning cultivation (Odds ratio = 9.94E - 01, P value = 2.03E - 11), as well as the “number of adjacent field” factor’s positive contribution on abandoning cultivation (Odds ratio = 1.13E+00, P value = 3.65E - 04). Given the evidence from the explanation of these results by customary laws and land inheritance system for each site, therefore, it could be concluded that the screening and detection of cultural endemism’s influence was achieved using the algorithm this paper proposes.

Mitigating risks of hybrid rice use in terrace agriculture

The Honghe Hani Rice Terraces of Yunnan Province have become a national emblem for China and a UNESCO World Heritage Site,but some are beginning to crumble.This research attempts to address why this is happening and what can be done about it.Previous work has failed to adequately address the possible shortcomings of recently introduced seed and water management technologies,their particular effect on rice terraces and the people who depend upon them.In an effort to better understand the issue,field observation was triangulated with in-depth interviews with local people,and the examination of scientific literature.To do this,the authors spent time in China with a translator in a key village known to be first in the area to truly succeed in carving the rice terraces and in making the mountain slope irrigation system required actually working.Results validated by experts in each field indicate that while the new seed and technologies do save water and improve lives,paired with migration,they may also be threatening the long-term viability of rice terracing in the region.The authors conclude that an integrated approach is needed and put forward a strategic blueprint to reinforce ecological,social and economic longevity.They also call for more research into the applicability of these resilience measures in other hybrid rice terracing regions,such as in the Philippines and Vietnam.

Honghe Hani Rice Terraces

On the south banks of the Honghe River in the mountainous terrain of south Yunnan, the Honghe Hani Rice Terraces cascade down the towering slopes of the Ailao Mountain. Carved out of dense forest over the past 1,300 years by Hani people since they settled here, the irrigated terraces support paddy fields surveying narrow valleys. In some places, there are as many as 3,000 terraces between thelower edges of the forest and the valley floor.

A bi-scale assessing framework for aesthetic ecosystem services of villages in a world heritage site

The relative spatial scale relationship of observers and ecosystem and their aesthetic dynamic interaction process are fundamental to evaluation and optimization of aesthetic ecosystem service(AES).A comprehensive and efficient framework for the assessment of AES is lack in the integration of scale relationship and dynamic process.This study took 9 villages in 4 different developmental stages(traditional,folk,rapidly changed,newly built)in Honghe Hani Rice Terraces,a world heritage site,as the research object.From two scales,viewing from inside and outside,the bi-scale assessing framework was established,which includes the three components of interaction process,connection area(as precondition of interaction),quality(as result of interaction),and influencing factors of quality(elements’characteristics of villages).Among them,the connection areas were evaluated with visual and traffic accessibility along the route.The quality and influencing factors were evaluated through participatory preferences methods by expert group.The influencing factors include 9 characteristics,such as,space size,architecture layout,vegetation species richness,color diversity.The results suggested that villages with high AES quality and low accessibility need to be optimized,and the key influencing factors are space size,architecture layout,color harmony and surrounding sanitation.Therefore,the bi-scale assessing framework can provide important references for decision making and visual protection regulations on the villages.

Agro-pedological Assessment of the Traditional Yuanyang Rice Terraces of Yunnan Province, China

As a contribution to a long-term evaluation of the sustainability of agro-ecosystems in the Yuanyang rice terraces, this paper reviews the bio-physical environment of the terraced landscape in a small catchment around Qingkou village and assesses soil fertility in the village crop growing area. A soil- landscape organization pattern was developed using a geomorphopedological approach. Anthropogenic, climatic and topographic factors were identified as the main soil forming factors. Soil capability and associated edaphic constraints were assessed and the main soil types were identified and classified using FAO protocols. Spatial patterns of soil fertility appear quite homogeneous. Soils are acid and cation exchange capacity and nutrient reserves are generally low. The agro-ecosystem has largely been developed by the Hani population. This agro-ecosystem has succeeded in maintaining a relatively dynamic nutrient circulation system. Current research is focusing on： （i） the evaluation of the representativeness of the studied area compared to the whole terraced system in the Yuanyang terraced landscape; （ii） measurements of nutrients flows at the field scale; （iii） the effects of soil properties on crop yields; and （iv） up-scaling field levels results to larger spatial units.

Factors Influencing Indigenous Rice Protection in the Yuanyang Terraced Rice Fields of China

Indigenous rice has maintained the survival of local people for more than a thousand years in the Yuanyang terraced rice fields of southern Yunnan, China. It is the foundation for long-term stable development of local agriculture and food security and its unique and irreplaceable characteristics give the terraces value. The status of indigenous rice resources is threatened by serious loss, so a better understanding of rice diversity and the factors that influence rice variety protection is conducive to policy. Here, we investigate the planting and conservation situation of indigenous rice, analyze factors impacting the protection and loss of traditional rice varieties, and construct an indigenous rice protection influence index system. Controllable factors which have special meaning to the maintenance and management of local rice are identified and corresponding strategies for the protection and maintenance of indigenous rice are discussed.

Spatial Variability Analysis of Soil Nutrients Based on GIS and Geostatistics:A Case Study of Yisa Township, Yunnan, China

Hani rice terraces system is one of the Globaly Important Agricultural Heritage Systems （GIAHS） pilot sites selected by FAO. Soil nutrients are an important symbol of soil fertility, and play an important role in the sustainable utilization of land. Based on geo-statistics and GIS, the spatial variation of pH, organic matter, total nitrogen, alkaline hydrolyzable nitrogen, available phosphorus and available potassium in the soil in Yisa （a town in Honghe County, Yunnan Province） was studied. The results show that the spatial variability of pH, organic matter, total nitrogen, alkaline hydrolyzable nitrogen and available potassium exhibited medium spatial variability, and the coefficients of variation are 12.54%, 40.14%, 40.00%, 34.89%, and 40.00% respectively. Available phosphorus exhibited strong spatial variability, and the coefifcient of variation is 102.13%. The spatial variation of pH, organic matter, total nitrogen, alkaline hydrolyzable nitrogen and available potassium fit the index mode, however, the spatial variation of available phosphorus ifts the spherical model. Total nitrogen, available phosphorus and available potassium were greatly affected by soil structural factors, while pH, organic matter and alkaline hydrolyzable nitrogen were affected by both structural and random factors. The spatial distribution of soil nutrients in Yisa was intuitively characterized by Kriging interpolation. It is very important to understand the spatial distribution of soil nutrients, which wil provide the guidance for adjusting agricultural management measures such as fertilization.

The Significance of Traditional Culture for Agricultural Biodiversity——Experiences from GIAHS

Agricultural biodiversity has a high importance in social-cultural,economic,and environmental aspects,and can help in adapting to and withstanding climate change.Conserving the GIAHS sites and the important components within them can help conserve the agricultural biodiversity and traditional agricultural culture of the whole country.This study considered Ifugao Rice Terraces,Dong’s Rice-Fish-Duck System,and Hani Rice Terraces System as three examples which show that traditional culture can be used to protect agricultural biodiversity,while as a carrier of traditional culture,agricultural biodiversity also conveys and protects the traditional culture of the nation.According to the analyses,through several years of efforts,the status of agricultural biodiversity and traditional culture in them has improved.Then,to further promote agricultural biodiversity conservation and traditional culture protection,several suggestions are made,such as establishing community seed banks;documenting and preserving traditional farming methods,techniques,and tools and developing participatory activities which encourage more farmers to participate in the protection work.