Dynamic rock tests using split Hopkinson （Kolsky） bar system - A review

Dynamic properties of rocks are important in a variety of rock mechanics and rock engineering problems. Due to the transient nature of the loading, dynamic tests of rock materials are very different from and much more challenging than their static counterparts. Dynamic tests are usually conducted using the split Hopkinson bar or Kolsl^j bar systems, which include both split Hopkinson pressure bar （SHPB） and split Hopkinson tension bar （SHTB） systems. Significant progress has been made on the quantification of various rock dynamic properties, owing to the advances in the experimental techniques of SHPB system. This review aims to fully describe and critically assess the detailed procedures and principles of tech- niques for dynamic rock tests using split Hopkinson bars. The history and principles of SHPB are outlined, followed by the key loading techniques that are useful for dynamic rock tests with SHPB （i.e. pulse shaping, momentum-trap and multi-axial loading techniques）. Various measurement techniques for rock tests in SHPB （i.e. X-ray micro computed tomography （CT）, laser gap gauge （LGG）, digital image corre- lation （DIC）, Moir~ method, caustics method, photoelastic coating method, dynamic infrared thermog- raphy） are then discussed. As the main objective of the review, various dynamic measurement techniques for rocks using SHPB are described, including dynamic rock strength measurements （i.e. dynamic compression, tension, bending and shear tests）, dynamic fracture measurements （i.e. dynamic imitation and propagation fracture toughness, dynamic fracture energy and fracture velocity）, and dy- namic techniques for studying the influences of temperature and pore water.

Deformation characteristics and damage ontologies of soft and hard composite rock masses under impact loading

As one of the most common occurring geological landforms in deep rock formations, the dynamic mechanical properties of layered composite rock bodies under impact loading have been widely studied by scholars. To study the dynamic properties of soft and hard composite rocks with different thickness ratios, this paper utilizes cement, quartz sand and gypsum powder to construct soft and hard composite rock specimens and utilizes a combination of indoor tests, numerical calculations, and theoretical analyses to investigate the mechanical properties of soft and hard composite rock bodies. The test results reveal that:(1) When the proportion of hard rock increases from 20% to 50%, the strength of the combined rock body increases by 69.14 MPa and 87 MPa when the hard rock face and soft rock face are loaded, respectively;however, when the proportion of hard rock is the same, the compressive strength of the hard rock face impact is 9%-17% greater than that of the soft rock face impact;(2) When a specimen of soft and hard combined rock body is subjected to impact loading, the damage mode involves mixed tension and shear damage, and the cracks generally first appear at the ends of the specimen, then develop on the laminar surface from the impact surface, and finally end in the overall damage of the soft rock part. The development rate and the total number of cracks in the same specimen when the hard rock face is impacted are significantly greater than those when the soft rock face is impacted;(3) By introducing Weibull’s statistical strength theory to establish the damage variables of soft-hard combined rock bodies, combined with the DP strength criterion, the damage model and the Kelvin body are concatenated to obtain a statistical damage constitutive model, which can better fit the full stress-strain curve of soft-hard combined rock body specimens under a single impact load.

Dynamic notched semi-circle bend(NSCB) method for measuring fracture properties of rocks:Fundamentals and applications

Rocks are increasingly used in extreme environments characterised by high loading rates and high confining pressures.Thus the fracture properties of rocks under dynamic loading and confinements are critical in various rock mechanics and rock engineering problems.Due to the transient nature of dynamic loading,the dynamic fracture tests of rocks are much more challenging than their static counterparts.Understanding the dynamic fracture behaviour of geomaterials relies significantly on suitable and reliable dynamic fracture testing methods.One of such methods is the notched semi-circle bend(NSCB)test combined with the advanced split Hopkinson pressure bar(SHPB)system,which has been recommended by the International Society for Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering(ISRM)as the standard method for the determination of dynamic fracture toughness.The dynamic NSCB-SHPB method can provide detailed insights into dynamic fracture properties including initiation fracture toughness,fracture energy,propagation fracture toughness and fracture velocity.This review aims to fully describe the detailed principles and state-of-the-art applications of dynamic NSCB-SHPB techniques.The history and principles of dynamic NSCB-SHPB tests for rocks are outlined,and then the applications of dynamic NSCB-SHPB method(including the measurements of initiation and propagation fracture toughnesses and the limiting fracture velocity,the size effect and the digital image correlation(DIC)experiments)are discussed.Further,other applications of dynamic NSCB-SHPB techniques(i.e.the thermal,moisture and anisotropy effects on the dynamic fracture properties of geomaterials,and dynamic fracture toughness of geomaterials under pre-loading and hydrostatic pressures)are presented.

A waveform modification method for testing dynamic properties of rock under high temperature

In this study,a waveform modification method was proposed using a self-designed heating device combined with the split Hopkinson pressure bar(SHPB)technique for determination of dynamic behaviors of rock at high temperature.Firstly,the temperature gradient distribution on the incident bar was measured according to the variation of elastic modulus of the bar with temperature,and the relationship between the longitudinal wave velocity and temperature of the bar was obtained based on onedimensional stress wave theory.The incident bar with a temperature gradient was divided into a series of microelements,and then the transmission coefficient of the whole incident bar was obtained.Finally,the stress wave was modified by the transmission coefficient from 25℃ to 600℃.This method was used to study the dynamic properties of rock at high temperature,which not only preserves a classical SHPB device,but also effectively ensures the accuracy of the experimental results.A dynamic Brazilian disc experiment was carried out to explore the influences of loading rate and temperature on dynamic tensile strength of sandstone at high temperature using the proposed waveform modification method.

Dynamic compression characteristics of layered rock mass of significant strength changes in adjacent layers

Layered rock mass of significant strength changes for adjacent layers is frequently observed in underground excavation,and dynamic loading is a prevalent scenario generated during excavation.In order to improve the driving efficiency and reduce engineering accidents,dynamic compression characteristics of this kind of rock mass should be understood.The dynamic properties of a layered composite rock mass are investigated through a series of rock tests and numerical simulations.The rock mass is artificially made of various proportions of sand,cement and water to control the distinct strength variations at various composite layers separated by parallel bedding planes.All rock specimens are prefabricated in a specially designed mould and then cut into 50 mm in diameter and 50 mm in height for split Hopkinson pressure bar(SHPB)dynamic compression testing.The test results reveal that increasing strain rate causes the increases of peak strength,σ_p,and the corresponding failure strain,ε_p,while the dynamic elastic modulus,E_d,remains almost unchanged.Interestingly,under the same strain rates,Ed of the composite rock specimen is found to decline first and then increase as the dip angle of bedding plane increases.The obtained rock failure patterns due to various dip angles lead to failure modes that could be classified into four categories from our dynamic tests.Also,a series of counterpart numerical simulations has been undertaken,showing that dynamic responses are in good agreement with those obtained from the SHPB tests.The numerical analysis enables us to Iook into the dynamic characteristics of the composite rock mass subjected to a broader range of strain rates and dip angles than these being tested.

Dynamic failure of dry and fully saturated limestone samples based on incubation time concept

This paper outlines the results of experimental study of the dynamic rock failure based on the comparison of dry and saturated limestone samples obtained during the dynamic compression and split tests. The tests were performed using the Kolsky method and its modifications for dynamic splitting. The mechanical data(e.g. strength, time and energy characteristics) of this material at high strain rates are obtained. It is shown that these characteristics are sensitive to the strain rate. A unified interpretation of these rate effects, based on the structuraletemporal approach, is hereby presented. It is demonstrated that the temporal dependence of the dynamic compressive and split tensile strengths of dry and saturated limestone samples can be predicted by the incubation time criterion. Previously discovered possibilities to optimize(minimize) the energy input for the failure process is discussed in connection with industrial rock failure processes. It is shown that the optimal energy input value associated with critical load, which is required to initialize failure in the rock media, strongly depends on the incubation time and the impact duration. The optimal load shapes, which minimize the momentum for a single failure impact, are demonstrated. Through this investigation, a possible approach to reduce the specific energy required for rock cutting by means of high-frequency vibrations is also discussed.

Dynamic rock tests using split Hopkinson(Kolsky)bar system-A review

Dynamic properties of rocks are important in a variety of rock mechanics and rock engineering problems.Due to the transient nature of the loading, dynamic tests of rock materials are very different from and much more challenging than their static counterparts. Dynamic tests are usually conducted using the split Hopkinson bar or Kolsky bar systems, which include both split Hopkinson pressure bar(SHPB) and split Hopkinson tension bar(SHTB) systems. Signi fi cant progress has been made on the quanti fi cation of various rock dynamic properties, owing to the advances in the experimental techniques of SHPB system.This review aims to fully describe and critically assess the detailed procedures and principles of techniques for dynamic rock tests using split Hopkinson bars. The history and principles of SHPB are outlined,followed by the key loading techniques that are useful for dynamic rock tests with SHPB(i.e. pulse shaping, momentum-trap and multi-axial loading techniques). Various measurement techniques for rock tests in SHPB(i.e. X-ray micro computed tomography(CT), laser gap gauge(LGG), digital image correlation(DIC), Moiré method, caustics method, photoelastic coating method, dynamic infrared thermography) are then discussed. As the main objective of the review, various dynamic measurement techniques for rocks using SHPB are described, including dynamic rock strength measurements(i.e.dynamic compression, tension, bending and shear tests), dynamic fracture measurements(i.e. dynamic imitation and propagation fracture toughness, dynamic fracture energy and fracture velocity), and dynamic techniques for studying the in fl uences of temperature and pore water.

Effects of thermal treatment on physical and mechanical characteristics of coal rock

To study the physical and mechanical properties of coal rock after treatment at different temperatures under impact loading, dynamic compression experiments were conducted by using a split Hopkinson pressure bar(SHPB). The stress–strain curves of specimens under impact loading were obtained, and then four indexes affected by temperature were analyzed in the experiment: the longitudinal wave velocity, elastic modulus, peak stress and peak strain. Among these indexes, the elastic modulus was utilized to express the specimens' damage characteristics. The results show that the stress–strain curves under impact loading lack the stage of micro-fissure closure and the slope of the elastic deformation stage is higher than that under static loading. Due to the dynamic loading effect, the peak stress increases while peak strain decreases. The dynamic mechanical properties of coal rock show obvious temperature effects. The longitudinal wave velocity, elastic modulus and peak stress all decrease to different extents with increasing temperature, while the peak strain increases continuously. During the whole heating process, the thermal damage value continues to increase linearly, which indicates that the internal structure of coal rock is gradually damaged by high temperature.

节理岩体动态破坏的SHPB相似材料试验研究

采用相似材料模型试验对不同节理倾角、节理贯通度、节理条数、载荷应变率、节理充填物厚度、节理充填物类型及试件长径比等7种工况下的节理岩体动态强度及破坏模式进行了分离式Hopkinson压杆（SHPB）试验研究。结果表明：节理岩体动态破坏模式及强度与节理构造形态密切相关。对于单节理岩体，其强度及破坏特征在很大程度上受节理倾角控制，节理倾角0°;、90°6;试件动强度分别为完整试件的90%和71%，且其破坏形式均为张拉破坏；倾角60°6;试件动强度几乎为0；倾角30°、45°试件的动强度分别为完整试件的50%和18%，且其破坏以剪切破坏为主，兼有张拉破坏。中心1/4、1/2、4/5及全贯通节理试件的峰值强度分别为完整试件的95%、74%、28%和17%，即随节理贯通度增加，试件动强度逐渐降低。含1-3条节理的试件动强度分别为完整试件的54%、23%和10%，即随节理条数增加，试件动强度随之有较大幅度降低，但节理条数的增加并没有改变其破坏模式。随着节理充填物厚度增加及节理充填物强度降低，试件强度依次递减，但破坏模式并没有改变。完整试件和节理试件的动强度均随着载荷应变率的增加而变大，且前者对载荷应变率的敏感性要远远高于后者，相应地试件的破坏模式也变得更加复杂。两类试件的动强度均随着试件长径比的增加先增大后减小，即存在一个最佳长径比。

高应变率下砂岩动态拉伸性能SHPB试验与分析

为研究高应变率下煤矿砂岩的动态拉伸性能,将岩样加工成厚径比为0.5的圆盘试件,利用直锥变截面分离式Hopkinson压杆(SHPB)试验装置,采用6种冲击气压对试件沿径向进行加载,实施不同加载速率的动态劈裂拉伸试验,测试试件的动态拉伸应力和应变率。试验结果表明:砂岩试件的动态劈裂破坏形态满足巴西圆盘试验有效性条件,试件内的径向应力分布达到应力均匀性要求;分析试验实测波形和应变率效应,得出高应变率下煤矿砂岩试件的拉伸应力和应变率特性。在试验采用冲击气压范围内,试件平均应变率由48 s-1增加至137 s-1,平均应变率与冲击气压近似为对数函数关系,动态拉伸强度与平均应变率近似为乘幂函数关系。

冲击载荷下砂质泥岩破碎分形特征

为研究砂质泥岩在冲击载荷下的破碎分形特征,采用霍普金森压杆试验装置,对砂质泥岩试样开展冲击压缩试验,探究其在5级冲击气压和2种长径比下的应力-应变曲线特征和破坏形态,并引入分形维数量化破碎程度和破碎块度分布,分析分形维数与加载值、强度值和能量值的关系。研究结果表明:冲击载荷下砂质泥岩破坏演化主要分为裂隙压实段、以弹性变形为主的弹-塑性稳定段、以塑性变形为主的塑-弹性非稳定段、宏观破坏段4个阶段,对于冲击前长度20 mm砂质泥岩试样,在裂隙压实段试样被压缩至19.86 mm,压缩量为0.7%;冲击载荷下砂质泥岩试样呈劈裂破坏,且破碎块度分布具有较好分形规律,长径比0.4和0.8试样的分形维数与应变率、动态抗压强度、破碎耗能密度均呈正相关;相同冲击气压下,长径比0.4试样对应变率和动态抗压强度的敏感性较长径比0.8更强;当破碎耗能密度相同时,长径比0.4试样较长径比0.8的分形维数更大。研究结果可为砂质泥岩顶底板巷道的防冲治理提供一定理论参考。

基于SHPB的复合岩样动态力学特性数值模拟

复合岩层的动态破坏问题在工程中越来越多,因此研究其动态破坏机理很有必要。采用 PFC2D软件建立分离式霍普金森压杆(SHPB)数值模型,模拟了复合岩层试样在不同倾角及不同应变率下的动态破坏过程。研究表明:随岩层倾角的增大,复合岩层试样动态抗压强度、动态弹性模量曲线整体呈先减小后增大的近“V”字型变化;动态抗压强度随着应变率的增加而增大,而动态弹性模量受应变率的影响较小;复合岩样裂纹以拉伸为主,随着应变率的增大,试样的动态破坏破碎程度越来越严重;试样的宏观破坏模式受细观裂纹的数量及贯通情况综合影响。研究结果有助于理解复合岩层动态破坏规律。

基于SHPB试验的岩石应变率效应分析

岩石材料在静荷载和动荷载作用下,其力学特性差异很大。采用直径100mm分离式Hopkinson压杆试验装置和波形整形技术对岩石进行动态冲击压缩试验,研究应变率范围为10~100s-1岩石的动态抗压强度、峰值应变及破坏形态的应变率效应。试验结果表明:试件动态抗压强度和峰值应变均随应变率增加而增大,最大动态抗压强度约为静态强度的2倍。试件动态破坏形态从低应变率下径向劈裂破坏到高应变率下粉碎破坏,随着应变率增加碎块数量明显增多而粒径变小,碎块粒径和块度分布变化显示出试件破坏形态具有明显的应变率效应。

岩石动态强度及其应变率灵敏性的尺寸效应研究

采用波长与岩石试件长度成比例的半正弦应力波加载方式,对长径比为0.5、直径分别为22,36,75 mm的花岗岩、砂岩和石灰岩试件进行不同应变率条件下的SHPB试验。试验结果表明:岩石动态强度随着应变率的增高近似以乘幂关系增大,呈现较强的率依赖性;试件尺寸越大,岩石动态强度对应变率依赖的灵敏性越显著,所测得的岩石动态强度离散性越小;在相同的应变率加载条件下,岩石动态强度随试件尺寸的增大而增加,与静载条件下岩石强度的尺寸效应相反;岩石动态强度的尺寸效应随着应变率的降低而减弱,并由此推断存在一个临界应变率对应着岩石尺寸效应的消失。低于临界应变率时,静载的尺寸效应占主导地位;高于临界应变率时,动态的尺寸效应占主导地位。

单轴循环冲击下岩石的动力学特性及其损伤模型研究

利用改进的大直径SHPB试验装置,对花岗岩试件进行单轴循环冲击压缩试验,分析花岗岩在循环冲击载荷下的力学特性及能量吸收规律。通过基于Weibull分布的动态统计损伤模型计算岩石的累积损伤,结合试验曲线分析岩石累积损伤的演化规律。研究结果表明:随着冲击载荷循环作用次数的增加,变形模量变小,试件的屈服应变增大,峰值应力呈降低趋势。岩石的累积比能量吸收值随着冲击次数的增加而增大,且试件破坏前其值增加缓慢,试件破坏时其值急剧增大。基于Weibull分布的动态损伤本构模型的计算曲线与试验曲线具有较好的一致性,该模型能反映岩石的强度与应变、应变率的关系。累积损伤随着循环冲击次数的增加而增大,其增加速率由小变大,试件破坏前累积损伤的增加较为平缓,其主要增量由最后一次冲击破坏产生。

一维动静组合加载下砂岩动力学特性的试验研究

基于对深部岩石承受高地应力并在动力开挖扰动下发生破坏这一问题的科学认识,利用改造的劈裂霍普金森压杆动静组合加载试验装置,开展一维动静组合加载下砂岩的动力学特性试验研究。选取无轴压和3个典型轴压水平4种情形,开展不同应变率下的冲击试验。研究结果表明,相同应变率下岩石对外界冲击的响应受轴压比影响很大,冲击强度会随着轴压比的增加出现先增加后减小的趋势,在轴压比为0.6～0.7时达到最大值。相同轴压下,冲击强度会随着应变率的增加而增加,呈现指数函数关系。在一定的轴压比范围内,随着入射能的递增,岩石在加载破坏试验中先后会经历"吸收能量-释放能量-吸收能量"3个阶段。这3个阶段可以较好的解释高应力下岩石的动态强度递增、岩爆发生和诱导致裂三者之间的互相转化机制,对深部岩石工程的实践可以提供理论上的指导。

高应变率条件下三峡工程花岗岩动力特性的试验研究

采取多种措施改进了分离式Hopkinson压杆试验技术,用改进的设备对三峡坝址处的花岗岩进行了大量的动态单轴压缩试验和劈裂试验,发现该岩石具有明显的应变率效应,其动态压缩破坏呈3种形态:边缘崩落、留心破坏、完全破坏;探讨了相应的破坏机制;分析了应变率对动态弹性模量和动态抗压强度的影响;以Hoek-Brown破坏准则为基础建立了相应的动态破坏准则。

三维动静组合加载下岩石力学特性试验初探

基于对深部岩石承受高地应力并在动力开挖扰动下发生破坏这一问题的科学认识,利用改造的三维霍普金森动静组合加载试验装置,开展三维动静组合加载下砂岩力学特性试验的初步研究。选取3个围压水平(0,5,和10 MPa)和3个典型轴压水平(60,80和100 MPa),开展不同应变率下的三维组合加载试验。研究结果表明,当围压一定,轴压比在0.52～0.87范围内变化时,砂岩的抗压强度都会随着轴压的增大而逐步减小。当轴压一定,围压为5 MPa时砂岩的抗压强度跟无围压情况下差别不大。但是当围压增大到10 MPa,砂岩的抗压强度会有较大提高。本文的研究结果也证明了冲击过程中轴压对砂岩内部的裂纹起催生作用,弱化微元体的承载能力,导致割线模量降低;围压则可以抑制裂纹的萌生和扩展,强化了微元体的承载能力,使得割线模量会增加。研究结果还表明,在本文轴压比范围内,当围压一定时,砂岩单位体积释放能会随着轴压的增大而降低,当常规静载轴压比为0.6～0.7时,转化为吸能状态。在三维动静组合加载下,砂岩会呈现出"单锥"压剪破裂形式。

高应力岩石围压卸载后动力扰动的临界破坏特性

利用改造的动静组合分离式霍普金森压杆(SHPB)加载装置,系统研究砂岩历经三维加载–围压卸载–轴向冲击的临界破坏特性。试验结果表明:砂岩受外界冲击时的临界破坏特性受轴向静压影响明显,冲击强度随着轴向静压的增加出现先增加后减小的趋势;当无轴压和轴向静压为单轴抗压强度的20%时,应力–应变曲线为典型的Ⅰ型曲线;随着轴向静压的增大,应力–应变曲线逐渐转变为Ⅱ型曲线。试样破坏过程中能量变化逐渐由吸收扰动能量转变为释放弹性储能,该现象可以较好地反映岩爆发生过程中高静应力和动力扰动的相互作用机制,为深部岩爆机制的深入研究提供试验支持。另外,利用数字散斑相关计算方法对试样应力加载过程进行表面位移场监测;结果表明,常规冲击加载下,试样表现出为整体膨胀特性,当轴向静压为72 MPa时,则表现为入射端张剪性破坏和膨胀性破坏的共同作用,反映出轴向静载对试样动态破裂面断裂方式的影响。

温–压耦合及动力扰动下岩石破碎的能量耗散

采用自行研制的温–压耦合及动力扰动试验系统,在4个温度等级(20℃,100℃,200℃,300℃)且每个温度等级的试样分别施加0,20,60,80 MPa的轴向静压力,对砂岩试样进行冲击试验。基于常规的霍普金森杆压缩试验中的能量耗散原理,计算出不同温度作用下动静组合加载岩石试样的能量耗散规律。结果表明:当动载荷保持不变,岩样在温度为20℃,200℃和300℃且预压力为20 MPa时,能量吸收率最大;而岩石试样作用温度为100℃时,当冲击载荷不变,不加轴压(轴压为0 MPa)时的能量吸收率最大。研究结果有助于研究高温、高应力作用下岩石破碎机制,为研究高温作用下岩体工程起到一定的参考作用。