Pore Structure Characterization of Clay Minerals in the Lower Karamay Formation Conglomerate Reservoir in the Junggar Basin and its Impact on Hydrocarbon Storage and Seepage

The micro-nano pore structure of conglomerate in the Lower Karamay Formation of the Xinjiang Oilfield,Junggar Basin,northern China is characterized to predict its impact on fluid reserves and seepage.Authigenic clay minerals are mainly kaolinite(67%),followed by an illite/smectite mixed layer(18%),illite(10%),and chlorite(5%).For kaolinite,pore throats between 0–200 nm are dominant,accounting for 90%of the total pore throats.For illite/smectite mixed layer,pore throats also between 0–200 nm account for nearly 80%,while pore throats between 200-500 nm only account for 15%.For illite,pore throats below 100 nm account for about 80%,while pore throats in the range of 100–500 nm only account for 20%.For chlorite,most throats are below 200 nm.The pore roundness of illite is the highest,while the pore roundness of chlorite is relatively lower.The lower limits of the dynamic and static pore throat radii are 42.128 nm and 72.42 nm,respectively.The theoretical contribution rates of the illite/smectite mixed layer,kaolinite,illite and chlorite to storage/seepage are 60%/45.86%,52.72%/38.18%,37.07%/28.78%and 32.97%/26.3%,respectively.Therefore,the contribution rates of clay minerals in the study area are as follows:illite/smectite mixed layer,kaolinite,illite and chlorite.

Potassium forms in calcareous soils as affected by clay minerals and soil development in Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad Province,Southwest Iran

Potassium（K） is known as one of the essential nutrients for the growth of plant species. The relationship between K and clay minerals can be used to understand the K cycling, and assess the plant uptake and potential of soil K fertility. This study was conducted to analyze the K forms（soluble, exchangeable, non-exchangeable and structural） and the relationship of K forms with clay minerals of calcareous soils in Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad Province, Southwest Iran. The climate is hotter and drier in the west and south of the province than in the east and north of the province. A total of 54 pedons were dug in the study area and 32 representative pedons were selected. The studied pedons were mostly located on calcareous deposits. The soils in the study area can be classified into 5 orders including Entisols, Inceptisols, Mollisols, Alfisols and Vertisols. The main soil clay minerals in the west and south of the study area were illite, chlorite and palygorskite, whereas they were smectite, vermiculite and illite in the north and east of the province. Due to large amount of smectite and high content of organic carbon in soil surface, the exchangeable K in surface soils was higher than that in subsurface soils. It seems that organic matter plays a more important role than smectite mineral in retaining exchangeable K in the studied soils. Non-exchangeable K exhibited close relationships with clay content, illite, vermiculite and smectite. Although the amount of illite was the same in almost all pedons, amounts of structural and non-exchangeable K were higher in humid regions than in arid and semi-arid regions. This difference may be related to the poor reservoir of K~＋ minerals like palygorskite and chlorite together with illite in arid and semi-arid regions. In humid areas, illite was accompanied by vermiculite and smectite as the K~＋ reservoir. Moreover, the mean cumulative non-exchangeable K released by CaCl_2 was higher than that released by oxalic acid, which may be due to the high buffering capacity resulting from high carbonates in soils.

Study on Geological Genesis and Sedimentary Model of Complex Low Resistivity Reservoir in Offshore Oilfield — A Case of NgIII Formation of X Oilfield in Bohai Sea

In order to study the micro genetic mechanism and main geological controlling factors of low resistivity reservoir in NgIII formation of X oilfield in Bohai sea in China, the clay mineral composition, irreducible water saturation, salinity and conductive minerals of low resistivity reservoir were studied by using the data of core, cast thin section and analysis, and compared with normal resistivity reservoir. At the same time, the control effect of sedimentary environment on low resistivity reservoir was discussed. The results show that the additional conductivity of high bound water content and high montmorillonite content in the reservoir together leads to the significant reduction of reservoir resistivity, which is the main microscopic cause of the formation of low resistance, and is mainly controlled by the sedimentary background such as paleoclimate and sedimentary cycle. During the deposition period of NgIII formation, the paleoclimate was dry and cold, and it was at the end of the water advance of the medium-term sedimentary cycle. The hydrodynamic force of the river channel was weak, the carrying capacity of the riverbed was weak, and the river channel swayed frequently, resulting in fine lithologic particle size, high shale content and complex pore structure of the reservoir, resulting in significant reduction of reservoir resistance. The research conclusion would have strong guiding significance for the development of low resistivity reservoirs in this area.

Instrumental Characterization of Pretoria Clay Soil by XRF, XRD and SEM

The products of refractory materials are used for lining furnace, incinerators and kilns among other uses and they have the potential of withstanding high temperature without deformation. The objective of the research was to charac-terize the clay soil sample collected from Tshwane University of Technology in Pretoria. The sample, collected from a location Latitude 25.0969°S and Longi-tude 28.1624°E, was oven-dried, pulverized and sieved in the laboratory. Min-eralogical and elemental compositions of the sample were determined by using X-Ray Diffraction (XRD), X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) analytical methods. The XRF analysis revealed Fe2O3, Al2O3 and SiO2 as the major constituents, while the other elements occur in minor quantities. Mineralogically, the three samples contain Montmorillonite, Kaolinite and Bentonite, while Samples A contained Quartz in addition to ear-lier mentioned minerals, samples B and C contained Albite.

How argillaceous reservoirs exhibit better quality than silty mudstones?Anomalous behavior of shale gas-bearing properties of continental fine-grained sediments in Southwest China and its possible forcing mechanisms

Achieving a thorough understanding of how primary sedimentary granularity drives considerable heterogeneity in internal reservoir attributes of terrigenous fine-grained deposits is of great significance.We investigated the quantitative differentiation and its corresponding driving forces of physical reservoir properties and pore-structure characteristics of silty-mud sediments in the Upper Triassic Xujiahe Formation(SW China)using a multi-method approach.The results show that the micro-mesopore volume and surface area of mudstones/shales are apparently higher than those of silty mudstones and a remarkable threefold rise in average permeability also presents.Extensively distributed bitumen pores occurring mostly along brittle mineral grains or forming clay-organic complexes make considerable contributions to shrinking microcracks.Furthermore,an evidently higher concentration of clay minerals in mudstone/shale reservoirs is primarily responsible for development of the two types of clay intercrystalline pores distributed along grain aggregates and between well-oriented platelets.These two major causes facilitate the formation of micro-bedding fractures/non-bedding micro fractures and connected fracture and pore-fracture networks,and also high-quality argillaceous reservoirs by strongly enhancing storage spaces and seepage capacities.Finally,a conceptual model is established for interpreting a differential reservoir-forming mechanism and corresponding two-sided effects on petrophysical and reservoir quality properties for continental silty-mud sediments.

Reservoir characteristics of the first member of Middle Permian Maokou Formation in Sichuan Basin and its periphery and inspirations to petroleum exploration,SW China

Based on a large number of field outcrops and cores taken systematically from boreholes,by microscopic observa-tion,physical property analysis,mineralogy analysis,geochemical analysis etc.,reservoir characteristics of the first member of Middle Permian Maokou Formation in Sichuan Basin("Mao 1 Me mber"for short)are analyzed.(1)Rhythmic limestone-marl reservoirs of this member mostly exist in marl layers are a set of tight carbonate fracture-pore type reservoir with low porosity and low permeability,with multiple types of storage space,mainly secondary dissolution pores and fissures of clay minerals.(2)The clay minerals are mainly diagenetic clay minerals,such as sepiolite,talc and their intermediate products,aliettite,with hardly terrigenous clay minerals,and the reservoir in different regions have significant differences in the types of clay minerals.(3)The formation of high quality tight carbonate reservoir with limestone-marl interbeds is related to the differential diagene-sis in the early seawater burial stage and the exposure karstification in the early diagenetic stage.It is inferred through th e study that the inner ramp of southwestern Sichuan Basin is more likely to have sweet spots with high production,while the outer ramp in eastern Sichuan Basin is more likely to have large scale contiguous reservoir with low production.

Impacts of interactions with low-mineralized water on permeability and pore behavior of carbonate reservoirs

Laboratory filtration experiments are employed to investigate effective well killing while minimizing its impacts on surrounding rocks.The novelty of this experimental study lies in the prolonged exposure of rock samples to the killing fluid for seven days,corresponding to the average duration of well workovers in the oilfields in Perm Krai,Russia.Our findings indicate that critical factors influencing the interactions between rocks and the killing fluid include the chemical composition of the killing fluid,the mineralogical composition of the carbonate rocks,reservoir pressure and temperature,and the contact time.Petrophysical analyses using multi-scale X-ray computed tomography,field emission scanning electron microscopy,and X-ray diffraction were conducted on samples both before and after the well killing simulation.The experiments were performed using real samples of cores,crude oil,and the killing fluid.The results from this study indicate that low-mineralized water(practically fresh water)is a carbonate rock solvent.Such water causes the dissolution of rock components,the formation of new calcite crystals and amoeba-like secretions,and the migration of small particles(clay,quartz,and carbonates).The formation of deep channels was also recorded.The assessment reveals that the change in the pH of the killing fluid indicates that the observed mineral reactions were caused by carbonate dissolution.These combined phenomena led to a decrease in the total number of voids in the core samples,which was 25%on average,predominantly among voids measuring between 45 and 70μm in size.The change in the pore distribution in the bulk of the samples resulted in decreases in porosity of 1.8%and permeability of 67.0%in the studied core samples.The results from this study indicate the unsuitability of low-mineralized water as a well killing fluid in carbonate reservoirs.The composition of the killing fluid should be optimized,for example,in terms of the ionic composition of water,which we intend to investigate in future research.

Reservoir quality of fluvial sandstone reservoirs in salt-walled mini- basins： an example from the Seagull field, Central Graben, North Sea, UK

The Triassic fluvial sandstones of the Skagerrak Formation were deposited in a series of salt-walled mini-basins and act as important hydrocarbon reservoirs for several high-pressure, high-temperature（HPHT） fields in the Central Graben, North Sea. The HPHT reservoirs exhibit excellent reservoir quality considering their depth of burial and hence have been of high interest for hydrocarbon exploration. This research uses a multidisciplinary approach to assess the Skagerrak Formation fluvial reservoir quality from the Seagull field incorporating core analysis, petrography, electron microscopy, XRD analysis, fluid inclusion appraisal and burial history modelling. Halokinesis and salt withdrawal at the margin of the saltwalled mini-basin induced early disaggregation bands and fractures at shallow burial and led to increased influx of meteoric water and clay mineral infiltration from overlying sedimentation. The density of disaggregation bands correlates with the occurrence and magnitude of pore-filling authigenic clay minerals, concentrated along the margin of the saltwalled mini-basin. The fluvial channel sandstones of the Skagerrak Formation are subject to strong intra-basinal spatial reservoir quality variations despite diagenesis and low vertical effective stress having played a favourable role in arresting porosity loss.

Sensitivity Analysis of Offshore Sandstone Reservoir—A Case Study of an Oilfield in the Western Bohai Sea

X oilfield is located in the Western Bohai Sea. During the water injection development process, the oil well productivity continued to decline. The effect of water injection and oil increase is poor. This time, by analyzing the sensitivity of the reservoir, the damage mode of the reservoir is analyzed, the reasons for the poor water injection effect are obtained, because of strong water sensitivity, medium to strong stress sensitivity, and the corresponding measures and suggestions are put forward, such as greater than 4500 mg/l of the salinity of injected water, timely supplement formation energy. Provide basis for the development of similar oil fields.

Research on Water Sensitivity and Velocity Sensitivity of Loose Sandstone Reservoir in China Offshore Oilfield

Aiming at the development characteristics of Bohai P oilfield, formation mechanism of reservoir damage was analyzed by mines of mineral composition, micro-pore structure, and seepage mechanism. Microscopic petrological observations and laboratory core experiments show that the content of clay minerals such as the Imon mixed layer and kaolinite is high with high porosity and good pore roar structure;the water sensitivity is medium to strong, The lower the salinity of injected water, the greater the drop in core permeability;the velocity-sensitive damage is strong, and permeability increases with the increase in flow velocity, and a large number of particles are observed in the produced fluid under the microscope. Aiming at the contradiction of velocity sensitivity between core permeability increase and the permeability decrease near the wellbore, the velocity sensitivity seepage model of “long-distance migration and blockage near the well” is proposed, and the permeability and formation distribution formula are deduced. The calculated value is close to the test value of actual pressure recovery test. The research results of water sensitivity and velocity sensitivity provide important guidance for Bohai P oilfield to improve production and absorption capacity and reservoir protection.

Quantitative characterization of reservoir space in the Lower Silurian Longmaxi Shale,southern Sichuan,China

Based on the drilling data of the Upper Ordovician Wufeng Shale and the Lower Silurian Longmaxi Shale in southern Sichuan Basin,the construction of matrix pores and the development condition of fractures in a marine organic-rich shale are quantitatively evaluated through the establishment of the reservoir petrophysical models and porosity mathematical models.Our studies show that there are four major characteristics of the Longmaxi Shale confirmed by the quantitative characterization:(1)the pore volume of per unit mass is the highest in organic matter,followed in clay minerals,finally in brittle minerals;(2)the porosity of the effective shale reservoir is moderate and equal to that of the Barnett Shale,and the main parts of the shale reservoir spaces are interlayer pores of clay minerals and organic pores;(3)the porosity of the organic-rich shale is closely related to TOC and brittle mineral/clay mineral ratio,and mainly increases with TOC and clay mineral content;(4)fractures are developed in this black shale,and are mainly micro ones and medium-large ones.In the Longmaxi Shale,the fracture density increases from top to bottom,reflecting the characteristics with high brittle mineral content,high Young’s modulus,low Poisson's ratio and high brittleness at its bottom.

Mineralogical and Geochemical Evidence of Fluid-rock Interaction at the Shallow Crustal Level in Koyna Seismogenic Region, Maharashtra, India: Impact and Implications

The Koyna region of Maharashtra located in the western part of the~65 Myr old Deccan traps province,overlying the Neoarchean cratonic granitoid basement of peninsular India,has been experiencing recurring seismicity since 1962 after the impoundment of the Shivajisagar Reservoir behind the Koyna Dam.

扫描电镜/能谱分析在油气勘探开发中的应用

该文对扫描电镜 /能谱分析在油气勘探开发中的应用作了归纳与总结 ,简要介绍了扫描电镜 /能谱分析在粘土矿物研究中的应用及意义 ,在碳酸盐岩、碎屑岩储层特性及储层质量评价中的应用 ,在油气层保护及油田开发中的应用 ,及在其它油气研究领域中的最新成果。扫描电镜 /能谱分析作为现代分析测试技术在油气勘探开发中具重要的作用。

电镜扫描在碎屑岩储层粘土矿物研究中的应用

以电镜扫描为主要手段,通过对南充构造上三叠统须家河组砂岩储层中粘土矿物的显微分析,直观地展示了储层中粘土矿物在电镜扫描下的形态、产状等方面的特征。研究了储集层中粘土矿物的类型、含量及其在电镜扫描下的空间分布特征。探讨了粘土矿物的含量、类型及其在储层孔隙中的产状对储层物性的影响,以及粘土矿物对储层损害的影响。初步展示了电镜扫描在碎屑岩油气储层粘土矿物分析研究中的意义及其应用前景。

强碱三元体系对岩心渗透率的影响规律

强碱三元体系注入油层后,碱与矿物组分发生化学反应及物理变化。强碱溶蚀岩石表面,溶蚀产物及黏土颗粒在油层渗流通道上运移沉淀,对渗流造成较大伤害。以A油田为研究对象,从碱对矿物组分的溶蚀性入手,通过渗流实验,借助扫描电镜及能谱分析仪等,分析了强碱对储层的伤害机理及溶蚀后的矿物组分变化,进而研究对岩心渗流能力的影响。岩心渗流实验结果表明,强碱三元体系长时间驱替后,注入压力上升约140 kPa,岩心渗透率平均下降18%。岩心原始孔隙结构在强碱的溶蚀和渗流冲刷下严重破坏,高岭石和蒙脱石等晶体结构被破坏。长时间驱替后,碱溶反应生成的沉淀物及脱落的黏土颗粒运移堵塞和附着在孔喉通道壁面,使岩心的渗流能力下降。扫描电镜结果表明,驱替前、后岩石矿物表面特征发生变化,颗粒运移,元素含量也随之变化,进一步验证了强碱三元体系对岩心渗透率的影响规律。

页岩储层矿物的高分辨率扫描电镜和能谱仪分析

高分辨率的扫描电镜(SEM)可对页岩气储层的表面形貌特征和矿物组成进行直观观测,结合其配套的能谱仪(EDS)可以定量或半定量地进行成分分析,对识别矿物组成发挥着极大的作用。采用氩离子抛光技术,利用场发射扫描电镜,结合能谱仪分析,对辽中凹陷古近系页岩储层的矿物组成进行了研究。结果表明,利用扫描电镜研究页岩储层矿物时,背散射电子在反映样品表面形态细节方面不及二次电子,但仍可显示微区内化学成分或原子序数的差异,通过灰度差异及矿物形态特征可对矿物进行初步识别。对于形态相似、背散射电子图像灰度差异小的矿物,可根据能谱分析的元素组成、分布及原子比进行区分。对于不常见的矿物,可根据能谱元素像分析技术所得的元素组成及分布加以推断和识别。

扫描电镜法在石油储层评价中的应用

为了提高石油地质储层勘探的有效性,将扫描电镜法应用到石油地质勘探中。结合测井资料,分析石油储层矿物组分与储层特征,通过模糊数学评价渤海湾盆地东北部石油储层。研究结果表明:该区域中海相沉积环境的长英质矿物含量最高,碳酸盐矿物含量较少,陆相沉积环境中无具备绝对优势的矿物;该区域石油地质储层中共包含长英质页岩与灰云岩两种类型岩石,长英质页岩的整体发育程度与连通性较好,其孔隙度与渗透率均高于灰云岩,说明其含油饱和度较高,对储集空间贡献较大;该区域中有机质孔与晶间孔两种孔隙类型对储集空间贡献较大;该区域石油地质储层整体属于中孔、中渗储层;该区域最上层属于劣势储层,不利于石油开采,最下面的两个地层属于优势储层,孔隙结构较优,利于石油开采。这表明扫描电镜法可以对石油地质储层进行精准的评价,所得到的储层结果与实际情况基本一致。