Protection efficiency assessment and quality of coastal shelterbelt for Dongshan Island at the coastal section scale

The coastal shelter forest in China is under threat of destruction and degradation because of the impact of human activities. Protection efficiency assessment of the coastal shelterbelt is an important component of shelterforest remediation planning and sustainable management. In this study, a protection efficiency index （PEI） model was established using the projection pursuit method to assess the protective quality of the coastal shelter forest at the coastal section scale of Dongshan Island, China. Three criteria were used, including forest stand structure, forest belt structure, and windbreak effect; each criterion further comprised multiple factors. Based on survey data of 31 plots in the coastal shelter forest of Dongshan Island, we calculated PEI values using a projection of a pursuit model. The result showed 64.5 % of the PEIs fell at or below the middle level, which can indicate the status of the coastal shelterbelt is unsatisfactory. To further explore whether the different bays and land use types create significant differences in PEIs and evaluation indices, we used an ANOVA to test the influence of various bays and forms of land use on coastal shelterbelts. The results showed that PEI and most of the indices differed significantly by bay; mean tree height, mean DBH, mean crown width, stand density, vegetation coverage, and wind velocity reduction differed significantly by land use. Therefore, relevant measures for different locations, bays and surrounding land use can be proposed to improve the existing conditions of the coastal shelterbelt. The results of this study provide a theoretical and technical framework for future changes and sustainable management of coastal shelterbelt on Dongshan Island.

An overview of the “Three-North” Shelterbelt project in China

The ＂Three-North＂ Shelterbelt is the largest and most distinctive artificial ecological engineering project in China. It has been conducted since November 25, 1978 in the ＂Three-North＂ （i.e., Northeast China, North China and Northwest China） regions. In this study, the background and the essential benefits of the ＂Three-North＂ Shelterbelt project are summarized. The basic status and future development of the ＂Three-North＂ Shelterbelt project are also studied. As well, we tried to discuss the problems existing in the current shelterbelt system and the strategies to conduct this ecological project rationally.

Effect of farmland shelterbelts on gully erosion in the black soil region of Northeast China

The black soil region of northeast China is one of the most important grain-producing areas in China. Increasingly severe gully erosion in this region has destroyed much farmland and reduced grain production. We analyzed SPOT5 imagery from 2007 and TM imagery from 2008 to describe the distributions of gullies and farmland shelterbelts in Kedong County and to assess the effect of farmland shelterbelts on gully erosion. The ima- gery revealed 2311 gullies with average density of 418.51 m km-2, indicating very serious gully erosion. With increasing slope gradient there was an inverse trend between gully density and shelterbelt density, indicating that farmland shelterbelts can prevent gully erosion. The defense effect of farmland shelterbelts against gullyerosion varied with distance： for distances 〈120 m, the defense effect was consistent and very strong; for distances of 120-240 m, a weak linear decrease was found in the defense effect; and for distances 〉240 m, the defense effect of the shelterbelts was significantly weaker. We recommend an optimal planting density of farmland shel- terbelts for the prevention of gully erosion at 1100-1300 m km-2.

Changes in and evaluation of surface soil quality in Populus×xiaohei shelterbelts in midwestern Heilongjiang province,China

To examine changes in surface soil quality over time in Populus×xiaohei shelterbelts,we collected soil samples from five shelterbelts of different ages and also from former cropland left fallow for 25 years.Twenty-one surface soil(0–20 cm)properties were measured,and variation in soil quality was assessed using one-way ANOVAs and multiple comparison tests.Based on this analysis,16 soil indexes were used in a model evaluating soil quality,with each index given weight as determined by the correlation coefficient.Compared with the control,the postmature forest had greater soil moisture content but lower bulk density(P<0.05).The mature forest also had higher soil pH,total organic carbon,alkali-hydrolyzed nitrogen,available phosphorus,and biomass nitrogen content,but reduced nitrate-nitrogen and total phosphorus content than the control(P<0.05).Total porosity was highly positively correlated with aeration,nitrate-nitrogen,alkali-hydrolyzed nitrogen,available phosphorus,microbial biomass carbon and microbial biomass nitrogen.Soil total organic carbon,ammonium nitrogen,nitrate-nitrogen,alkali-hydrolyzed nitrogen,total nitrogen,available phosphorus,microbial biomass carbon and microbial biomass nitrogen were all strongly correlated.In the soil quality evaluation model,total organic carbon was assigned the highest weight and total potassium content the lowest.The soil quality index was lowest in the near-mature forest and greatest in the postmature forest.Generally,soil quality in P opulus×xiaohei shelterbelts varied with age and was higher in the 10–20 cm versus 0–10 cm soil layer.After a single forest generation,surface soil quality was significantly improved.

Assessment of the effects of the shelterbelt on the soil temperature at regional scale based on MODIS data

At present, the most researches on the protected effect of shelterbelt are on the basis of the two scales of forest belts and networks. However, with the further research on the global environmental change, more attention was paid to the regional climate effect of shelterbelt. In present study, we analyzed the temperature effect of the shelterbelt at regional scale by using the land surface temperature （LST） data from the moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer （MODIS） at Yushu, Nong＇an, Dehui, and Fuyu in Jilin Province of China from March to October in 2008. Results show that the shelterbelt can increase the soil temperature of the protected farmland as compared with no shelterbelt zone, with the increment of 0.57oC per day in fine shelterbelt and 0.38oC per day in the normal shelterbelt. Moreover, the correlation analysis of the air temperature, precipitation and the soil type and the shelterbelt effect shows that the air temperature and precipitation are negatively correlated with the shelterbelt effects, that is, the more the temperature and precipitation are, the less the effect produced. While the impact of the soil types on the shelterbelt＇s effect is not very obvious as a whole. This paper draws significance in terms of analyzing the effects of the shelterbelt on the soil temperature at regional scale utilizing the remotely sensed data and GIS technique.

A retrieval and validation method for shelterbelt vegetation fraction

Shelterbelts are important in defending against natural disaster and maintaining ecological balances in farmland. Understanding of the shelterbelt vegetation fraction is fundamental to regional research of shelterbelts using remote sensing. We used SPOT5 imagery with 10×10m spatial resolution in combination with knowledge of the characteristics of shelterbelts to develop a method for retrieval of the vegetation fraction of shelterbelts by the pixel un-mixing model. We then used the method to retrieve values for shelterbelts in study area. By combining the parameters of photographic images with characteristics of shelterbelts, we developed a method for measuring the vegetation fraction of shelterbelts based on an advanced photographic method. We then measured the actual values to validate the retrieval result. The multiple correlation coefficients between the retrieved and measured values were 0.715. Our retrieval and measuring methods presented in this paper accurately reflect field conditions. We suggest that this method is useful to describe shelterbelt structure using remote sensing.

Evaluating the Role of Shelterbelt in Vegetation Development in a Semi Arid Zone of Yobe State, Nigeria

This study evaluates the role of shelterbelts on the development and dynamics of vegetation in relation to livelihoods in the study area using geo-information techniques. The study covered the period between 1972 and 2007. The results show that in 1972 vegetation cover in the study area extended over an area of 6955 hectares (i.e.?shrubs, grasses and trees) which represents 65% of the area;however there was a decrease in 1986 to an area of 5779 hectares (54%). Despite the establishment of shelterbelt in the area in 1987, the trend did not change. This is obvious in the reduction of vegetation cover between 1986 and 2000 to a total area of 3893 hectares (37%). The vegetation cover further decreased to 2791 hectares (26%) in 2005 and 1659 hectares (16%) in 2007 respectively. The study concludes that the establishment of shelterbelts alone cannot guarantee the success of vegetation cover development in the area without a sustainable plan which recognizes the local communities as critical stakeholders. Thus, variables like population growth and GDP have a role to play in vegetation cover depletion. The study recommends that efforts geared towards enlightenment of the local communities on the need for conservation should be encouraged by Government and Non-Governmental Organisations.

Effects of Spatial Density of Farmland Shelterbelts on NDVI on the Northern Slope of Tianshan Mountains

[Objectives]To explore the effects of spatial density of farmland shelterbelts on NDVI on the northern slope of Tianshan Mountains.[Methods]Taking the economic belt of the northern slope of the Tianshan Mountains as the research area and using the grid method,the spatial density distribution of farmland shelterbelts can be known.Combining the grid method with NDVI data,the average value of normalized difference vegetation index(NDVI)during the growing period of crops can be obtained.In addition,the protection benefits of the shelterbelts on crops were analyzed through comparing the growth of crops within the protection zone with and without protection.[Results]The grids with shelterbelt distribution were better than the grids without shelterbelt distribution,and the shelterbelt played a great role in promoting crop growth.In the middle stage of crop growth,the protection benefit of shelterbelt was significant.The spatial density of shelterbelts was unevenly distributed in the range of 0.6 to 0.8,and the protection benefits were poor.[Conclusions]It is expected to explore the effects of shelterbelts on crop growth at a larger regional scale,so as to provide a basis for the management and design of shelterbelts in the future,and to provide a theoretical basis for studying the protective effect of farmland shelterbelts on crops.

"3Ns" Shelterbelt Network Project

In China’s three northern regions of the Northwest, North and Northeast (3Ns), there are 1.33 million sq km of desert and sand land, forming a 5,000-km-long wind-sand belt. In 1978, the Chinese government decided to build the "3Ns" shelterbelt network. The project covers 13 provinces, autonomous regions and cities including Xinjiang, Qinghai, Gansu, Ningxia, Shaanxi, Inner Mongolia, Shanxi, Hebei, Beijing, Tianjin, Liaoning, Jilin and Heilongjiang, eovering an area of 4.06 million sq km, 42％ of the country’s total land. It plans to complete the project in 73 years, in three phases: the first phase

A Method for Spatial Heterogeneity Evaluation on Landscape Pattern of Farmland Shelterbelt Networks:A Case Study in Midwest of Jilin Province,China

On the basis of landscape ecology, combining the Spot 5 high resolution satellite imagery with GIS, a method evaluating the spatial heterogeneity of shelterbelts distribution at landscape scale is put forward in this paper. The distance coefficients of reasonable and existing landscape indexes of farmland shelterbelt networks were com-puted, and then through the classification of the distance coefficients, and the establishment of evaluation rules, the spatial heterogeneity of farmland shelterbelts was evaluated. The method can improve the evaluating system of previ-ous studies on shelterbelts distribution, resolve the disadvantages of lacking spatiality of overall evaluation, and make the evaluation results have more directive significance for shelterbelt management. Based on this method, spatial het-erogeneity of shelterbelt networks was evaluated in the midwest of Jilin Province, China. The results show that the re-gions with fewer shelterbelts and no closed network account for 34.7% of the total area, but only 4.9% of the area has relative reasonable pattern of shelterbelt networks. Many problems exist in the distribution pattern of shelterbelts, therefore, much attention should be paid to construct farmland shelterbelts in the study area.

木麻黄基干林带对台风“杜苏芮”的防风效应

为了解海防林对台风的防护效应,以惠安赤湖国有防护林场监测站收集的“杜苏芮”台风登陆前后的气象数据为材料,分析了台风登陆前后近地层的风速、风向、湍流强度、防风效能和气流加速率等的特征规律。结果表明:(1)台风登陆前后的平均风速和风向时程变化特征满足了台风眼区经过的条件,平均风速曲线呈“M”形双峰分布,通过采集到的台风眼区、眼壁和外围强风的完整风况数据,完整展示了台风经过林带前后风速、风向的演变过程。(2)湍流强度的时程整体变化趋势随着台风靠近和离去呈现增大-减小-剧增-回落的过程,尤其台风后风圈影响的区域,湍流强度剧烈增大,强度可增大2倍以上。(3)向岸风在垂直方向上,弱风或强风的防风效能随高度增加而降低,高度相同,林带后弱风的防风效能小于强风;水平方向上,林内及林带后1H和5H处防风效能最好,在高度3 m平均防风效能为49.57%~93.93%,在高度9 m平均防风效能为44.04%~90.10%。离岸风在垂直方向上,随着气流靠近林带,弱风或强风的气流加速率随高度增加而增大,林带后1H高度3 m气流加速率平均为0.2193,高度9 m气流加速率平均为0.3242,林内气流加速率达到最低值;而风越过林带后,弱风风速恢复到88%左右,强风的气流则有个加速的过程。

Wind Velocity Reduction of Coastal Shelterbelt System in Shanghai,East China

Wind velocity reduction of coastal shelterbelt system was monitored for 1 month in 3 weather stations in Nanhui,Shanghai,and the benefits of shelterbelt system and trunk shelterbelt forest were compared in this paper.The results showed the wind velocity at the first weather station(W1),which located in front of trunk shelterbelt forest by the seaside,was the biggest,with the average of 9.36 m/s;the wind velocity at the second weather station(W2) was lower than that at W1,with the range of 0 to 18.2 m/s and the average of 6.39 m/s,and the wind velocity at the third weather station(W3) was the lowest,with the average of 2.58 m/s.Both the ratio of W2 to W1 and the ratio of W3 to W1 ranged from 0 to 100%,but most of the ratio of W2 to W1(89.59%) was above 20%,and most of the ratio of W3 to W1(95.52%) was below 50%,which shows bigger wind velocity reduction in shelterbelts system than in trunk shelterbelt forest.With the wind scale increased from 1 to 8 scale at W2 and W3,the wind velocity increased.But the reduction in wind velocity decreased.

海南热带海岸海防林植被恢复的探索与实践

文章分析了海南岛热带海岸存在植被生态退化问题,针对主要的退化问题钛锆砂矿废弃地的植被退化和单一树种的人工木麻黄海防林的缺陷,提出了分三步走恢复海岸海防林植被的学术思路,即恢复和巩固木麻黄海防林;建立引入乡土树种的混交林型海防林;促进混交林演替成具地带性植被特征的天然林型海防林。按照这个思路开展了近20年的海岸植被生态恢复的实证研究和应用实践,验证了其可行性,实现了初步构建乡土林型的海防林植被,达到了研究构想预期的效果。研究成果为海南岛以及华南沿海热带海岸的海防林生态恢复提供了可借鉴的范例。

5个景观防护树种对根部淹水胁迫的生理响应

通过对枫杨、水杉、中山杉601、苏柳172、腺柳5个树种扦插苗进行5 cm(浅淹水)、10 cm(深淹水)淹水胁迫处理,研究5个树种对不同淹水胁迫处理的生理响应,并对其耐涝性进行综合评价,以期为长江沿岸景观防护林的筛选提供参考。结果表明:淹水胁迫下,苏柳172的总叶绿素(Chla+Chlb)、赤霉素(GA3)、脱落酸(ABA)含量均显著升高,其叶片变小、叶色深绿,对淹水胁迫具有较强的适应性。水杉在淹水胁迫下总叶绿素/类胡萝卜素[(Chla+Chlb)/Car]比值和玉米素核苷/吲哚乙酸(ZR/IAA)比值均较高,其超氧歧化酶(SOD)、过氧化氢酶(CAT)活性和脯氨酸(Pro)含量也均较高。在淹水胁迫下,枫杨的Chla+Chlb含量、SOD活性显著下降,过氧化氢(H_(2)O_(2))含量显著升高,叶色明显变黄,但非光化学淬灭系数(NPQ)、类胡萝卜素(Car)、Pro、ABA含量提高,说明其具有较高的抗氧化能力。相比于深淹水处理,浅淹水处理下腺柳的苗高增量、光化学淬灭系数(qP)、光合色素、吲哚乙酸(IAA)、玉米素核苷(ZR)含量均较高,其可在浅淹水条件下生长,深淹水对其生长不利。淹水胁迫下,中山杉601的Chla+Chlb、CAT、ABA含量均出现显著的下降趋势,而丙二醛(MDA)含量和相对电导率(REC)增量最大,说明其受到的氧化胁迫较其他树种大,但仍然能在淹水条件下生长。经综合评价,这5个树种在浅淹水处理下的耐淹性依次顺序为:枫杨>腺柳>苏柳172>水杉>中山杉601;在深淹水处理下的耐淹性排序依次为:苏柳172>水杉>枫杨>腺柳>中山杉601。综上所述,5个树种均对淹水胁迫具有较强的适应性,适合做为景观防护林树种。

细菌群落主导沙漠公路防护林营造后的土壤功能变化

防护林作为沙漠公路的安全保护屏障,其生长和应对胁迫所需的养分供给依赖于土壤微生物。以塔里木沙漠公路防护林和自然沙漠为研究系统,探究土壤细菌和真菌群落、两种生境共有和特有微生物物种变化对土壤物质循环功能的驱动作用。结果显示,土壤细菌和真菌物种丰富度(P<0.01,P<0.01)及群落组成(P<0.05,P<0.01)均受防护林营造的显著影响,细菌物种丰富度的响应增幅为77.5%,高于真菌22.1%。细菌群落是导致土壤酶活性升高的显著驱动因素,而非真菌群落或环境因子;细菌物种丰富度(rho=0.46,P<0.01)和群落组成(rho=0.68,P<0.01)与土壤酶之间呈显著偏Mantel相关。共有细菌相对丰度(rho=0.47,P<0.01)和特有细菌物种丰富度(rho=0.36,P<0.01)是驱动土壤酶活性改善的关键因素,与土壤酶之间呈显著偏Mantel相关。研究表明,沙漠公路防护林土壤细菌而非真菌主导微生物群落的响应,细菌群落通过改变本地物种丰度和新物种数量来调控土壤功能。

Effects of natural covers on soil evaporation of the shelterbelt along the Tarim Desert Highway

The control of soil evaporation is one of important approaches to save water. The artificially simulated evaporation experiments have been conducted in the hinterland of the Taklimakan Desert to reveal the effects of the natural covers on the soil evaporation of the Tarim Desert Highway shelterbelt as well as provide some insights in the efficient utilization of water resources and optimization of irrigation systems. The results showed that (1) All the covers, including the sand deposit, the salt crust, the litter, the sand-litter mixed layer and so on, can significantly inhibit the soil water evaporation. Specifically, the daily evaporation, the total evaporation, and the evaporation rate in covered sands were much smaller than that of sands without cover. The cover inhibition effects increased with the cover thickness. Particularly, the soil evaporation of the covered sands was less affected by external and internal factors than that of the bare sands. Moreover, the variation of daily evaporation of covered sands was smaller than that of bare sands. The cumulative evaporation varied linearly with time in the covered sands whereas it varied logarithmically in the bare sands. In addition, the soil evaporation in the bare sands showed significantly different characteristics in the early and late stages of the evaporation. (2) All the covers exhibited the significant inhibiting effect on the soil evaporation, and the inhibition efficiency increased logarithmically with the cover thickness. However, as the cover thickness was above a certain value, the increase in the inhibition efficiency was slow. Particularly, at a cover thickness of 2 cm, there was no obvious difference in the inhibition efficiency among all kinds of covers. The maximum inhibition efficiency as calculated from the daily evaporation on the first day of irrigation was: sand-litter mixed layer (79.92%) > litter layer (78.96%) > salt crust (75.58%) > sand bed (74.11%), whereas the average inhibiting efficiency as calculated from the cumulative soil evaporation at the end of an irrigation cycle (the fourth day) was: salt crust (67.78%) > sand-litter mixed layer (66.72%) > sand deposit (63.28%) > litter layer (61.74%).

The effect of salt stress on the chlorophyll level of the main sand-binding plants in the shelterbelt along the Tarim Desert Highway

Based on the fact that only high saline water irrigated to the shelterbelt along the Tarim Desert Highway, the experiment about three species with six degree of salinity was carried out to analyze the relation between chlorophyll content and salt stress. The results show that: (1) the chlorophyll content of tree species decreases with aggravating the salt stress, which explains that salt stress can affect chlorophyll accumulation of three plants; (2) from chlorophyll content with different salinity, the chlorophyll content of three shrubs also has twice obvious decrease, which indicates that some plants adapt to salt stress. We divided salt resistance of the plant into three grades, namely the slight salt resistance, the heavy salt resistance and the extreme salt resistance; and (3) according to the experimental results, the salt stress of each plant was divided, which can provide theoretical guidance for constructing the shelterbelt along the Tarim Desert Highway.

Plants water status of the shelterbelt along the Tarim Desert Highway

The plant water consumption and irrigation management are the core issue of the sustainable growing of the Tarim Desert Highway shelterbelt in the hyperaride Taklimakan Desert. The stem sap flow, water status and water consumption of shelterbelt plants were studied, then, the issue of the water save in the process of shelterbelt irrigation management was discussed by measuring the sap flow of shelterbelt plants with a stem sap flow gauge. The stem sap flow exhibited a distinct diurnal course with maximum values between 10:00 and 15:00, and minimum values between 00:00 and 03:00. Generally, sap flow was lower at night than during the day. The daily average stem sap flow of Calligonum arborescens, Tamarix ramosissima and Haloxylon ammodendron (diameter 1.9―2.0 cm) was 67.2 g·h-1, 77.05 g·h-1 and 61.54 g·h-1 respectively. The sap flow was influenced by environmental factors, and the solar radiation, wind velocity, temperature and relative humidity were significantly correlative with plant stem sap flow. The annual water consumption of 8-a Calligonum arborescens, Tamarix ramosissima and Haloxylon ammodendron was 1937.80 kg, 1253.39 kg and 1026.96 kg, while daily average water consumption was 9.69 kg, 6.27 kg and 5.13 kg respectively. Under drip irrigation, soil moisture content of the shelterbelt in different months indicated no obvious fluctuation, and soil moisture was adequate. The predawn and midday plant water potential reflected that the plant water status was in good conditions. There is still some water-saving space if optimizing the present water management, integrating water resources conservation and protection performance.

Topographical changes of ground surface affected by the shelterbelt along the Tarim Desert Highway

To study the effects of sand protection project on modern aeolian landform, the types, distribution, and intensity of topographical changes of the ground surface affected by the shelterbelt along the Tarim Desert Highway were determined by measuring the deflation and deposition of sand surface in the Tazhong area located in the hinterland of the Taklimakan Desert. The results showed that (1) the newly-formed landform in sand protection systems is dominated by aeolian deposition including the small-scale Nabkha Dunes, the medium-scale sheet-like sand deposition and the large-scale ridge-like sand deposition. To some degree, aeolian deflation landform can also be formed in the open space in the shelterbelt. Furthermore, it is difficult for aeolian deflation landform to develop in a large scale in the interdunes. However, aeolian deflation landform can be developed in a large-scale on the windward slope of secondary dunes in longitudinal complex sand ridges; (2) on the windward side of the sand protection systems, both the morphology and strike of dwarf mobile dunes in the interdunes are changed by the sand-obstructing forest belts and the ridge-like sand deposition around it. The wind- ward slope of the ridge-like deposition around the sand-obstructing forest belt forms a stable ground surface. After being damaged by forward-moving dunes in a short period, the ground surface is re- covered gradually; (3) on the leeward side of the sand protection systems, aeolian deflations are formed widely. Particularly, the deflation depression is formed in the interdunes. In addition, the dunes in the region with highly topographic relief are cut flat by aeolian deflations; thereafter its relief of to- pography is reduced. The above analysis indicates that shelterbelts have obvious effects on the windward wind-sand flux in terms of dissipating energy and intercepting sand. With the recovery of wind velocity on the leeward side of the sand protection systems, the wind-sand flux gradually tends to be unsaturated; therefore the sand surface deflation is formed.

Effect of the shelterbelt along the Tarim Desert Highway on air temperature and humidity

The temperature and humidity of the shelterbelt micro-climate on both horizontal and vertical scales in the extremely drought area were measured with multiple HOBO temperature and humidity automatic observation equipments in the hinterland of the Taklimakan Desert. The results show that the shelterbelt ecosystem of the desert highway plays typical micro-climate adjustment rolesin stabilizing surface air temperature and increasing air humidity, and so on. Solar radiation significantly affects both temperature and humidity of surface layers, and it has a positive correlation with the temperature but a negative correlation with the air humidity. When it is cloudy, the weather has a great impact on keeping temperature and humidity in the shelterbelt. The shelterbelt also significantly influences the environment, and the micro-climate in the belt has an obvious characteristic of cooling and humidification: compared with the original sand area, the temperature in the shelterbelt is always lower and the humidity is always higher. Moreover, the temperature range at the shelterbelt edge is greater than that in the sand area, but the humidity is always higher. Our conclusion is that the vertical-effect range of temperature of the shelterbelts is 4 -10 m, and the humidity range is 6 to 8 m; the horizontal-effect range of temperature is 16 m and the humidity range is about 24 m.