Tamoxifen and Src kinase inhibitors as neuroprotective/neuroregenerative drugs after spinal cord injury

Spinal cord injury （SCI） is a devastating condition that produces significant changes in the life- style of patients. Many molecular and cellular events are triggered after the initial physical impact to the cord. Two major phases have been described in the field of SCI： an acute phase and late phase. Most of the therapeutic strategies are focused on the late phase because this provides an opportunity to target cellular events like apoptosis, demyelination, scar formation and axonal outgrowth. In this mini-review, we will focus on two agents （tamoxifen and a Src kinase family inhibitor known as PP2） that have been shown in our laboratory to produce neuroprotective （increase cell survival） and/or regenerative （axonal outgrowth） actions. The animal model used in our laboratory is adult female rat （N250 g） with a moderate contusion （12.5 mm） to the spinal cord at the T10 level, using the MASCIS impactor device. Tamoxifen or PP2 was administered by implantation of a 15 mg pellet （Innovative Research of America, Sarasota, FL, USA） or by intraperitoneal injections （1.5 mg/kg, every 3 days）, respectively, to produce a long-term effect （28 days）. Tamoxifen and the Src kinase inhibitor, PP2, are drugs that in rats with a moderate spinal cord injury promote functional locomotor recovery, increase spared white matter tissue, and stimulate axonal outgrowth. Moreover, tamoxifen reduces the formation of reactive oxygen species. Therefore, these drugs are possible therapeutic agents that have a neuroprotective/regen- erative activity in vertebrates with SCI.

N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors mediate diphosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinases through Src family tyrosine kinases and Ca^2＋/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase Ⅱ in rat hippocampus after cerebral ischemia

Objective： Extracellular signal-regulated kinases （ERKs） can be activated by calcium signals. In this study, we investigated whether calcium-dependent kinases were involved in ERKs cascade activation after global cerebral ischemia. Methods Cerebral ischemia was induced by four-vessel occlusion, and the calcium-dependent proteins were detected by immunoblot. Results Lethal-simulated ischemia significantly resulted in ERKs activation in N-methyl-D-aspartate （NMDA） receptor-dependent manner, accompanying with differential upregulation of Src kinase and Ca^2＋/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase Ⅱ （CaMKⅡ） activities. With the inhibition of Src family tyrosine kinases or CaMKⅡ by administration of PP2 or KN62, the phosphorylation of ERKs was impaired dramatically during post-ischemia recovery. However, ischemic challenge also repressed ERKs activity when Src kinase was excessively activated. Conclusions Src family tyrosine kinases and CaMKⅡ might be involved in the activation of ERKs mediated by NMDA receptor in response to acute ischemic stimuli in vivo, but the intense activation of Src kinase resulted from ischemia may play a reverse role in the ERKs cascade.

Different effects of the inhibition of Src activity on Akt/PKB in melanoma cells with wild BRAF and mutated BRAF V600E

Src regulates cell adhesion, invasiveness, motility and growth in cancer cells. In melanoma, accumulating data show that Src inhibition can be effective and may enhance the effects of other agents. Increased Src expression and activity thus has recently become a target for drug therapy. Several melanoma cell lines were exposed to inhibitors of Src activity despite their broad specificity. To examine the particular activity of Src in human melanoma cells, we used SU6656, the selective inhibitor of Src family protein kinases. The activity of Src and cell proliferation were suppressed in HBL human cells, wild type melanoma cells and in SK-MEL-5 human melanoma cells harboring mutant BRAF V600E, upon their treatment with SU6656. The suppression of Src kinase activity had not inhibitory effects on Akt/PKB activity in SK-MEL-5 cells, which we have previously found in HBL cells. This may indicate that changes of Src involvement in the control of Akt/PKB activity and its downstream signaling could be induced by BRAF V600E mutation in SK-MEL-5 cells.

Effect of inhibiting tyrosine kinase Src expression on protein phosphatase 2A and tau phosphorylation

The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of tyrosine kinase Src on Tyrosine 307(Y307)phosphor-ylation,protein phosphatase 2A(PP2A)activity,and on tau phosphorylation.Specific Src siRNA was transfected into cultured mouse neuroblastoma N2a cells to inhibit the expression of Src protein,and the phosphorylation levels of PP2A Y307 and tau at different sites,as well as PP2A activity were detected at different time points after siRNA transfection.Twelve hours after siRNA transfec-tion,the protein level of Src was dramatically decreased,with decreased PP2A Y307 phosphorylation.However,the total PP2A protein level was also decreased,together with a decreased PP2A activity.Tau was hyperpho-sphorylated at the Ser198/199/202 sites.Multiple factors may be involved in the cellular regulation of PP2A activ-ity.Inhibiting Src expression could induce inactivation of PP2A and tau hyperphosphorylation.

Long-term treatment with PP2 after spinal cord injury resulted in functional locomotor recovery and increased spared tissue

The spinal cord has the ability to regenerate but the microenvironment generated after trauma reduces that capacity. An increase in Src family kinase （SFK） activity has been implicated in neuropathological conditions associated with central nervous system trauma. Therefore, we hypothesized that a decrease in SFK activation by a long-term treatment with 4-amino-5-（4- chlorophenyl）-7-（t-butyl）pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyramidine （PP2）, a selective SFK inhibitor, after spinal cord contusion with the New York University （NYU） impactor device would generate a permissive environment that improves axonal sprouting and/or behavioral activity. Results demonstrated that long-term blockade of SFK activation with PP2 increases locomotor activity at 7, 14, 21 and 28 days post-iniury in the Basso, Beattie, and Bresnahan open field test, round and square beam crossing tests. In addition, an increase in white matter spared tissue and serotonin fiber density was observed in animals treated with PP2. However, blockade of SFK activity did not change the astrocytic response or infiltration of cells from the immune system at 28 days post-injury. Moreover, a reduced SFK activity with PP2 diminished Ephexin （a guanine nudeotide exchange factor） phosphorylation in the acute phase （4 days post-injury） after trauma. Together, these findings suggest a potential role of SFK in the regulation of spared tissue and/or axonal outgrowth that may result in functional locomotor recovery during the pathophysiology generated after spinal cord injury. Our study also points out that ephexinl phosphorylation （activation） by SFK action may be involved in the repulsive microenvironment generated after spinal cord injury.