Optimization of lithium extraction solar pond in Zabuye Salt Lake: Theoretical calculation combined with field experiments

This research optimized the structure of lithium extraction solar ponds to enhance the crystallization rate and yield of Li_(2)CO_(3).Using the response surface methodology in Design-Expert 10.0.3,the authors conducted experiments to investigate the influence of four factors related to solar pond structure on the crystallization of Li_(2)CO_(3) and their pairwise interactions.Computational Fluid Dynamics(CFD)simulations of the flow field within the solar pond were performed using COMSOL Multiphysics software to compare temperature distributions before and after optimization.The results indicate that the optimal structure for lithium extraction from the Zabuye Salt Lake solar ponds includes UCZ(Upper Convective Zone)thickness of 53.63 cm,an LCZ(Lower Convective Zone)direct heating temperature of 57.39℃,a CO32−concentration of 32.21 g/L,and an added soda ash concentration of 6.52 g/L.Following this optimized pathway,the Li_(2)CO_(3) precipitation increased by 7.34% compared to the initial solar pond process,with a 33.33% improvement in lithium carbonate crystallization rate.This study demonstrates the feasibility of optimizing lithium extraction solar pond structures,offering a new approach for constructing such ponds in salt lakes.It provides valuable guidance for the efficient extraction of lithium resources from carbonate-type salt lake brines.

Preferentially selective extraction of lithium from spent LiCoO_(2)cathodes by medium-temperature carbon reduction roasting

Lithium recovery from spent lithium-ion batteries(LIBs)have attracted extensive attention due to the skyrocketing price of lithium.The medium-temperature carbon reduction roasting was proposed to preferential selective extraction of lithium from spent Li-CoO_(2)(LCO)cathodes to overcome the incomplete recovery and loss of lithium during the recycling process.The LCO layered structure was destroyed and lithium was completely converted into water-soluble Li2CO_(3)under a suitable temperature to control the reduced state of the cobalt oxide.The Co metal agglomerates generated during medium-temperature carbon reduction roasting were broken by wet grinding and ultrasonic crushing to release the entrained lithium.The results showed that 99.10%of the whole lithium could be recovered as Li2CO_(3)with a purity of 99.55%.This work provided a new perspective on the preferentially selective extraction of lithium from spent lithium batteries.

Effects of conductive agent type on lithium extraction from salt lake brine with LiFePO_(4) electrodes

Electrochemical lithium extraction from salt lakes is an effective strategy for obtaining lithium at a low cost.Nevertheless,the elevated Mg:Li ratio and the presence of numerous coexisting ions in salt lake brines give rise to challenges,such as prolonged lithium extraction periods,diminished lithium extraction efficiency,and considerable environmental pollution.In this work,Li FePO4(LFP)served as the electrode material for electrochemical lithium extraction.The conductive network in the LFP electrode was optimized by adjusting the type of conductive agent.This approach resulted in high lithium extraction efficiency and extended cycle life.When the single conductive agent of acetylene black(AB)or multiwalled carbon nanotubes(MWCNTs)was replaced with the mixed conductive agent of AB/MWCNTs,the average diffusion coefficient of Li+in the electrode increased from 2.35×10^(-9)or 1.77×10^(-9)to 4.21×10^(-9)cm^(2)·s^(-1).At the current density of 20 mA·g^(-1),the average lithium extraction capacity per gram of LFP electrode increased from 30.36 mg with the single conductive agent(AB)to 35.62 mg with the mixed conductive agent(AB/MWCNTs).When the mixed conductive agent was used,the capacity retention of the electrode after 30 cycles reached 82.9%,which was considerably higher than the capacity retention of 65.8%obtained when the single AB was utilized.Meanwhile,the electrode with mixed conductive agent of AB/MWCNTs provided good cycling performance.When the conductive agent content decreased or the loading capacity increased,the electrode containing the mixed conductive agent continued to show excellent electrochemical performance.Furthermore,a self-designed,highly efficient,continuous lithium extraction device was constructed.The electrode utilizing the AB/MWCNT mixed conductive agent maintained excellent adsorption capacity and cycling performance in this device.This work provides a new perspective for the electrochemical extraction of lithium using LFP electrodes.

Extraction of lithium from salt lake brine by aluminum-based alloys

Salt lake brine was reacted with activated aluminum-based alloys and lithium was precipitated.The effects of aluminum-based alloys on precipitating lithium were investigated and the reasonable alloy used to extract lithium from brine was obtained.The effects of the mole ratio of Al to Li and Ca content of Al-Ca alloy,the initial concentration of lithiumion ion in solution,reaction temperature and reaction time on the adsorption rate of lithium were studied,and the optimized process parameters were determined.The results show that the mole ratio of Al to Li and Ca content of Al-Ca alloy and reaction temperature have great influences on the precipitation rate of lithium.The precipitation rate of lithium reaches 94.6% under the optimal condition,indicating that Al-Ca alloy is suitable for the extraction of lithium from salt lake brine.

Highly efficient extraction of lithium from salt lake brine by LiAl-layered double hydroxides as lithium-ion-selective capturing material

The extraction of lithium from salt lake brine in the Chinese Qaidam Basin is challenging due to its high Mg/Li and Na/Li ratios. Herein, we utilized a reaction-coupled separation technology to separate sodium and lithium ions from a high Na/Li ratio brine(Na/Li = 48.7, w/w) and extracted lithium with Li Al-layered double hydroxides(Li Al-LDHs). The Li Al-LDHs act as lithium-ion-selective capturing materials from multication brines. That is, the lithium ions selectively enter the solid phase to form Li Al-LDHs, and the sodium ions are still retained in the liquid phase. This is because the lithium ions can be incorporated into the structural vacancies of LiAl-LDHs, whereas the sodium ions cannot. The effects of reaction conditions on lithium loss and separation efficiency were investigated at both the nucleation and the crystallization stage, e.g., the nucleation rotating speed, the Li/Al molar ratio, the crystallization temperature and time, and co-existing cations. The lithium loss is as low as 3.93% under optimal separation conditions.The sodium ions remained in the solution. Consequently, an excellent Na/Li separation efficiency was achieved by this reaction-coupled separation technology. These findings confirm that LiAl-LDHs play a critical function in selectively capturing lithium ions from brines with a high Na/Li ratio, which is useful for the extraction of lithium ions from the abundant salt lake brine resources in China.

A review of lithium extraction from natural resources

Lithium is considered to be the most important energy metal of the 21st century.Because of the development trend of global electrification,the consumption of lithium has increased significantly over the last decade,and it is foreseeable that its demand will continue to increase for a long time.Limited by the total amount of lithium on the market,lithium extraction from natural resources is still the first choice for the rapid development of emerging industries.This paper reviews the recent technological developments in the extraction of lithium from natural resources.Existing methods are summarized by the main resources,such as spodumene,lepidolite,and brine.The advantages and disadvantages of each method are compared.Finally,reasonable suggestions are proposed for the development of lithium extraction from natural resources based on the understanding of existing methods.This review provides a reference for the research,development,optimization,and industrial application of future processes.

Optimization of an innovative approach involving mechanical activation and acid digestion for the extraction of lithium from lepidolite

The recovery of lithium from hard rock minerals has received increased attention given the high demand for this element. There- fore, this study optimized an innovative process, which does not require a high-temperature calcination step, for lithium extraction from le- pidolite. Mechanical activation and acid digestion were suggested as crucial process parameters, and experimental design and re- sponse-surface methodology were applied to model and optimize the proposed lithium extraction process. The promoting effect of amorphi- zation and the formation of lithium sulfate hydrate on lithium extraction yield were assessed. Several factor combinations led to extraction yields that exceeded 90%, indicating that the proposed process is an effective approach for lithium recovery.

Lithium extraction from hard rock lithium ores(spodumene,lepidolite,zinnwaldite,petalite):Technology,resources,environment and cost

Lithium production in China mainly depends on hard rock lithium ores,which has a defect in resources,environment,and economy compared with extracting lithium from brine.This paper focuses on the research progress of extracting lithium from spodumene,lepidolite,petalite,and zinnwaldite by acid,alkali,salt roasting,and chlorination methods,and analyzes the resource intensity,environmental impact,and production cost of industrial lithium extraction from spodumene and lepidolite.It is found that the sulfuric acid method has a high lithium recovery rate,but with a complicated process and high energy consumption;alkali and chlorination methods can directly react with lithium ores,reducing energy consumption,but need to optimize reaction conditions and safety of equipment and operation;the salt roasting method has large material flux and high energy consumption,so require adjustment of sulfate ratio to increase the lithium yield and reduce production cost.Compared with extracting lithium from brine,extracting lithium from ores,calcination,roasting,purity,and other processes consume more resources and energy;and its environmental impact mainly comes from the pollutants discharged by fossil energy,9.3-60.4 times that of lithium extracted from brine.The processing cost of lithium extraction from lepidolite by sulfate roasting method is higher than that from spodumene by sulfuric acid due to the consumption of high-value sulfate.However,the production costs of both are mainly affected by the price of lithium ores,which is less competitive than that of extracting lithium from brine.Thus,the process of extracting lithium from ores should develop appropriate technology,shorten the process flow,save resources and energy,and increase the recovery rate of related elements to reduce environmental impact and improve the added value of by-products and the economy of the process.

Preparation and adsorption performance of multi-morphology H_(1.6)Mn_(1.6)O_(4) for lithium extraction

In this paper,a lithium-ion sieve(LIS)with different morphologies,such as rod-like(LIS-R),spherical(LIS-S),flower-like(LIS-F),and three-dimensional macroporous-mesoporous(LIS-3D),was prepared by hydrothermal synthesis,solid reaction,and hard-template synthesis.The results showed that the LIS with different morphologies presented great differences in specific surface area,pore volume,adsorption selectivity,and structure stability.LIS-3D with highest specific surface area and pore volume displayed the maximum adsorption capacity and adsorption rate,but the stability of LIS-3D was poor because of the manganese dissolution.By comparison,LIS-S has the best structural stability while maintaining a satisfactory adsorption capacity(35.02 mg·g^(-1))and adsorption rate.The LIS-S remained about 90%of the original adsorption capacity after five cycles of adsorption-desorption process.In addition,in the simulated brine system(the magnesium to lithium ratio of 400),the LIS-S exhibited the highest selectivity(α_(Mg)^(Li))of 425.14.In sum,the LIS-S with good morphology is a potential adsorbent for lithium extraction from brine.

Extraction of Lithium from Salt Lake Brine using N523-TBP Mixture System

In this work, problems encountered by tri-butyl phosphate (TBP) in the industrialization of lithium extraction from salt lake brine were discussed in detail. The behavior of N, N-bi-(2-ethylhexyl) acetamide (N523) during lithium extraction was investigated, and its disadvantages were analyzed in the view of practical application. An N523-TBP mixture extraction system was proposed to alleviate or avoid the defects that N523 and TBP met when they were used separately. The optimal composition of this mixture extraction system was determined to be 20%N523-30%TBP-50% kerosene. The effects of brine acidity, Fe/Li molarity ratio, phase ratio and chloride ion concentration on lithium extraction efficiency were discussed. The operation conditions in single-stage extraction were optimized as brine acidity=0.05 mol/L, Fe/Li molarity ratio=1.3, and phase ratio=2. The high concentration of chloride ions in brine was beneficial for the extraction of lithium. The structure of the extracted complex was proposed as (LiFeCl 4 · n N523 · m TBP)·(2- n )N523 ·(2- m )TBP (m+n=2) by chemical analysis and slope-fitting methods. The extraction thermodynamic functions were calculated preliminarily, and the results suggested that the extraction process was an exothermic (ΔH <0) and spontaneous (ΔG <0) reaction, and the degree of disorder increased (ΔS >0) during the extraction process. This work will give some guidance to the lithium industry of Qinghai in both the fundamental theory and practical application.

Extraction of Lithium from Brine Containing High Concentration of Magnesium by Tri-n-Butyl Phosphate Dissolved in Kerosene

Tri-n-butyl phosphate（TBP）dissolved in kerosene was chosen as extractant for lithium from a modelbrine having high magnesium-to-lithium ratio and ferric chloride was added to the system.The influences of con-tact time,concentration of the extractant,concentrations of some salts(Mg2+, Na+,K+)in the solution,acid-ity of hydrochloric acid and extraction temperature on the exttaction of lithium with TBP-kerosene system werestudied.The suitable extraction conditions were found to be:contact time not any less than 20min;at 20-25C;[Fe+3]/[Li+]about 1.5-2.0;TBP concentration 50%-70%;[MgCl2]exceeding 3 mol·L-1;pH about 2;while most sodium and potassium salts in the aqueous phase should be removed before the extraction.

Classification and mineralization of global lithium deposits and lithium extraction technologies for exogenetic lithium deposits

A reasonable classification of deposits holds great significance for identifying prospecting targets and deploying exploration. The world ’s keen demand for lithium resources has expedited the discovery of numerous novel lithium resources. Given the presence of varied classification criteria for lithium resources presently, this study further ascertained and classified the lithium resources according to their occurrence modes, obtaining 10 types and 5 subtypes of lithium deposits(resources) based on endogenetic and exogenetic factors. As indicated by surveys of Cenozoic exogenetic lithium deposits in China and abroad,the formation and distribution of the deposits are primarily determined by plate collision zones, their primary material sources are linked to the anatectic magmas in the deep oceanic crust, and they were formed primarily during the Miocene and Late Paleogene. The researchers ascertained that these deposits,especially those of the salt lake, geothermal, and volcanic deposit types, are formed by unique slightly acidic magmas, tend to migrate and accumulate toward low-lying areas, and display supernormal enrichment. However, the material sources of lithium deposits(resources) of the Neopaleozoic clay subtype and the deep brine type are yet to be further identified. Given the various types and complex origins of lithium deposits(resources), which were formed due to the interactions of multiple spheres, it is recommended that the mineralization of exogenetic lithium deposits(resources) be investigated by integrating tectono-geochemistry, paleoatmospheric circulation, and salinology. So far, industrialized lithium extraction is primarily achieved in lithium deposits of the salt lake, clay, and hard rock types. The lithium extraction employs different processes, with lithium extraction from salt lake-type lithium deposits proving the most energy-saving and cost-effective.

Engineering Multi‑field‑coupled Synergistic Ion Transport System Based on the Heterogeneous Nanofluidic Membrane for High‑Efficient Lithium Extraction

The global carbon neutrality strategy brings a wave of rechargeable lithium‐ion batteries technique development and induces an ever-growing consumption and demand for lithium(Li).Among all the Li exploitation,extracting Li from spent LIBs would be a strategic and perspective approach,especially with the low energy consumption and eco-friendly membrane separation method.However,current membrane separation systems mainly focus on monotonous membrane design and structure optimization,and rarely further consider the coordination of inherent structure and applied external field,resulting in limited ion transport.Here,we propose a heterogeneous nanofluidic membrane as a platform for coupling multi-external fields(i.e.,lightinduced heat,electrical,and concentration gradient fields)to construct the multi-field-coupled synergistic ion transport system(MSITS)for Li-ion extraction from spent LIBs.The Li flux of the MSITS reaches 367.4 mmol m^(−2)h^(−1),even higher than the sum flux of those applied individual fields,reflecting synergistic enhancement for ion transport of the multi-field-coupled effect.Benefiting from the adaptation of membrane structure and multi-external fields,the proposed system exhibits ultrahigh selectivity with a Li^(+)/Co^(2+)factor of 216,412,outperforming previous reports.MSITS based on nanofluidic membrane proves to be a promising ion transport strategy,as it could accelerate ion transmembrane transport and alleviate the ion concentration polarization effect.This work demonstrated a collaborative system equipped with an optimized membrane for high-efficient Li extraction,providing an expanded strategy to investigate the other membrane-based applications of their common similarities in core concepts.

Great Breakthrough Achieved in Extraction of Lithium from Brine with High Magnesium to Lithium Ratios

With the worldwide rise in electric vehicles, the demand for lithium batteries is increasing day by day. In 2015, China＇s new energy vehicles developed rapidly, and the price of lithium carbonate rose from fifty or sixty thousand yuan per ton to 150 thousand yuan. In the past, lithium was often extracted from spodumene （LiAlSi2O6）, which is time consuming, laborious and expensive. Over the past decade, abundant lithium has been discovered in brackish and salt water lakes, which is an important way to obtain lithium resources.

Lithium Ion Extraction from the High Ration Mg/Li Salt Lake Brine with Ionic Liquid in Triisobutyl Phosphate and Kerosene

1 Introduction As the lightest metal with the unique properties of energy production and storage,lithium is regarded as the new century energy metal.Lithium and its compounds were widely used in various industrial fields,especially in

New Extraction System for Lithium from Brine with High Magnesium Content

Lithium is an important element with a wide variety of applications,especially in lithium ion batteries and in the exploration of nuclear energy.Salt lake brine is the most abundant lithium source available in world,comp-rising70%~80%of all known lithium deposits.Lithium can be abstracted from brines with low magnesium content and processed into kinds of lithium compound in Atacama and Hombre Muerto of South America(Nie et al.,2013).

Li^+ extraction/adsorption properties of Li-Sb-Mn composite oxides in aqueous medium

Series Li-Sb-Mn composite oxides with different Sb/Mn molar ratios were obtained by solid state reaction.Their structure,morphology and Li^＋ extraction/adsorption properties were characterized by X-ray diffractometry （XRD）,scanning electron microscopy （SEM） and atomic absorption spectrophotometry （AAS）,respectively.XRD and SEM analyses reveal that the crystal of the products transfers from spinel to orthorhombic phase with the increase of molar ratio of Sb to Mn from 0.05 to 1.00.The Li^＋ extraction and adsorption experiments for these Li-Sb-Mn composite oxides demonstrate that the composite oxides can all be used as lithium inorganic adsorbents.The acid treated spinel Li-Sb-Mn composite oxide with Sb/Mn molar ratio of 0.05 has a high Li^＋ adsorption capacity of 33.23mg/g in lithium solution.The Sb/Mn molar ratio of these Li-Sb-Mn composite oxides should be a crucial factor in determining their structure and Li^＋ extraction and adsorption properties.

Optimization of operation conditions for extracting lithium ions from calcium chloride-type oil field brine

AI（OH）3 was prepared to extract lithium ions from calcium chloride-type oil field brine. The influences of four factors, namely temperature, Al3＋/Li＋ molar ratio, OH-/Al3＋ molar ratio, and contact time between AI（OH）3 and the brine, on the yield of lithium ions were investigated. It is found that their optimal values are 35℃, 4.5, 2.6, and 6 h, respectively. In the course of the experiment, the apparent pH value was observed. The results reveal that the apparent pH value has no remarkable influence on the yield of lithium ions. Meanwhile, the effects of the concentrations of calcium ions and magnesium ions in the brine on lithium recovery were studied. The results indicate that cal- cium ions have minor negative influence on the yield of lithium ions under optimal conditions, and magnesium ions slightly influence the yield of lithium ions.

Scorpion ethanol extract and valproic acid effects on hippocampal glial fibrillary acidic protein expression in a rat model of chronic-kindling epilepsy induced by lithium chloride-pilocarpine

The present study analyzed the effects of ethanol extracts of scorpion on epilepsy prevention and hippocampal expression of glial fibrillary acidic protein in a lithium chloride-pilocarpine epileptic rat model. Results were subsequently compared with valproic acid. Results showed gradually- increased hippocampal glial fibrillary acidic protein expression following model establishment; glial fibrillary acidic protein mRNA expression was significantly increased at 3 days, reached a peak at 7 days, and then gradually decreased thereafter. Ethanol extracts of scorpion doses of 580 and 1 160 mg/kg, as well as 120 mg/kg valproic acid, led to a decreased number of glial fibrillary acidic protein-positive cells and glial fibrillary acidic protein mRNA expression, as well as decreased seizure grades and frequency of spontaneously recurrent seizures. The effects of 1 160 mg/kg ethanol extracts of scorpion were equal to those of 120 mg/kg valproic acid. These results suggested that the anti-epileptic effect of ethanol extracts of scorpion were associated with decreased hippocampal glial fibrillary acidic protein expression in a rat model of lithium chlofide-pilocarpine induced epilepsy.

Effects of ethanol extracts of scorpion on hippocampal apoptosis and caspase-3 expression in lithium chloride-pilocarpine-induced status epilepticus rats

BACKGROUND： Previous studies have demonstrated that scorpion venom in the scorpion can inhibit epilepsy and apoptosis. However, it remains unclear whether ethanol extracts of scorpion （EES） exhibit similar effects. OBJECTIVE： To investigate the effects of EES on hippocampal apoptosis and caspase-3 expression, and to compare the effects on sodium valproate （positive control drug） in a rat model of status epilepticus induced by lithium chloride-pilocarpine. DESIGN, TIME AND SETTING： This randomized, controlled study was conducted at the Drug Research and Development Center, Kanghong Pharmaceuticals Group, and the Department of Pathology, Sichuan Academy of Medical Sciences ＆ Sichuan Provincial People＇s Hospital, China from May 2007 to April 2008. MATERIALS： EES were prepared by Huashen Pharmaceutical, China. Sodium valproate （Hunan Xiangzhong Pharmaceutical, China） and lithium chloride-pilocarpine （Sigma, USA） were also used in the present study. METHODS： From a total of 156 rats, six served as normal controls. The remaining rats were intraperitoneally injected with lithium chloride-pilocarpine to establish status epileptlcus models, and then assigned to five groups （n = 30, respectively）. Animals in each group were administered drugs at 15 minutes after epileptic seizure by gavage, i.e. in the normal control and model groups, rats were treated with 1 mL/0.1 kg saline. The sodium valproate group was administered 120 mg/kg/d sodium valproate. The low-, moderate-, and high-dose EES groups received treatments of 290, 580 and 1 160 mg/kg/d EES. The dispensed concentration was 1 mL/0.1 kg. Rat seizure behavior was observed. If status epilepticus did not terminated after 1 hour, the rats were intraperitoneally administered atropine （1 mg/kg） and diazepam （10 mg/kg） to terminate seizure. These rats were continuously observed for 6 hours to ensure seizure termination. Then rats were treated with the above-mentioned drugs at 8：00 am each day until sacrifice, which took place 4 hours after drug administration. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES： Terminal dUTP nick end labeling （TUNEL）-positive cells and caspase-3 expression were, respectively, determined by TUNEL and immunohistochemistry at 6, 24 48, and 72 hours, as well as 7 days, after status epilepticus. Behavioral changes were also measured. RESULTS： A few caspase-3-positive cells were observed. TUNEL- and caspase-3-positive ceils were mainly visible in the hippocampal CA1 and CA3 regions 6 hours following status epilepticus in the model and drug intervention groups. The number of TUNEL-positive cells reached a peak at 48 hours following status epilepticus in the sodium valproate group, as well as the moderate- and high-dose EES groups, and number of TUNEL-positive cells reached a peak at 72 hours in the model and low-dose EES groups. The number of caspase-3-positive cells reached a peak at 48 hours in each group. Following treatment of sodium valproate and EES, the number of TUNEL- and caspase-3-positive cells significantly decreased compared with the model group at various time points （P 〈 0.05）. The number of TUNEL- and caspase-3-positive cells was greatest in the low-dose EES group, followed by the moderate- and high-dose EES groups. The number of TUNEL- and caspase-3-positive cells was similar between the sodium valproate and high-dose EES groups. Epileptic seizure was significantly improved in the sodium valproate group, as well as the moderate- and high-dose EES groups, compared with the model group （P〈 0.05 or P〈 0.01）. Treatment with sodium valproate and high-dose EES resulted in the best outcome, although the results were similar （P 〉 0.05）. CONCLUSION： A dose of 1 160 mg/kg/d EES significantly inhibited status epilepticus. This outcome corresponded to a decreased number of apoptotlc cells and caspase-3-positive cells, which was similar to sodium valproate. These results suggest that it is not necessary to extract a component from the scorpion for the treatment of epilepsy. The high dose of EES significantly inhibited epilepsy, which correlated with decreased hippocampal caspase-3 expression.