Analysis on the Interaction between Turbulence and Secondary Circulation of the Surface Layer at Jinta Oasis in Summer

The kinetic energy variations of mean flow and turbulence at three levels in the surface layer were calculated by using eddy covariance data from observations at Jinta oasis in 2005 summer. It is found that when the mean horizontal flow was stronger, the turbulent kinetic energy was increased at all levels, as well as the downward mean wind at the middle level. Since the mean vertical flow on the top and bottom were both negligible at that time, there was a secondary circulation with convergence in the upper half and divergence in the lower half of the column. After consideration of energy conversion, it was found that the interaction between turbulence and the secondary circulation caused the intensification of each other. The interaction reflected positive feedback between turbulence and the vertical shear of the mean flow. Turbulent sensible and latent heat flux anomaly were also analyzed. The results show that in both daytime and at night, when the surface layer turbulence was intensified as a result of strengthened mean flow, the sensible heat flux was decreased while the latent heat flux was increased. Both anomalous fluxes contributed to the cold island effect and the moisture island effect of the oasis.

Thermal Wind Imbalance along the Curved Streamline of the Secondary Circulation in Tropical Cyclones

The thermal wind balance in tropical cyclone(TC)eyewalls has been controversial for decades.This study reveals the relationship between the acceleration and curvature on the TC secondary circulation streamline,providing a way to judge thermal wind balance or imbalance in TCs from a simple but clear perspective.According to the relationship between the curvature and acceleration on the streamline,the vertical and radial components of the acceleration cannot be zero simultaneously on the streamline curve,implying that the thermal wind imbalance corresponds to the curvature of the streamline.On the regular scales of TCs,we discuss the conditions of the thermal wind balance approximation and find that the conditions become more stringent with increasing altitudes.In the TC secondary circulation,as an indication of thermal wind imbalance,gradient wind imbalance can be found in the low-level eyewall since there is usually a large curvature when the inflow in the low-level eyewall turns into updrafts sharply.Additionally,gradient wind imbalance also appears at the top level of TC eyewalls because the stringent conditions are too easily broken there.

Characteristics of Secondary Circulations in the Convective Boundary Layer over Two-Dimensional Heterogeneous Surfaces

Large-eddy simulations are conducted to investigate the impacts of the scale of chessboard-like heteroge- neous surface heating and the background wind on secondary circulations （SCs） in the convective boundary layer （CBL）. When the wind blows along the diagonal of the chessboard pattern, the cases with different heterogeneity length scales （λ = 1.2, 2.4, and 4.8 km） and weak background wind （U = 2.5 m s-1） suggest that there exists a threshold for the roll-like SCs, which is satisfied when the heterogeneity length scale is 1.6 times the boundary layer height （λ = 1.6zi）. During the CBL development, the SC intensity increases before this threshold is met, whereas it decreases thereafter. The cases with different background wind speeds （U = 2.5, 5.0, and 10.0 m s-1） and relatively large heterogeneity length scale （λ = 4.8 km） show that the SCs are strengthened by larger wind speeds when the heterogeneity length scale is so large that the threshold cannot be met during the CBL development. Another case with wind direction along neither the diagonal nor the side of the chessboard pattern shows that the roll-like SCs can still be triggered, but the roll axes are orientated along the diagonal of the chessboard pattern rather than along the wind direction.

Diagnosis of the Secondary Circulation of Tropical Storm Bilis(2006) and the Effects of Convective Systems on Its Track

We diagnose characteristics of the quasi-balanced flow and secondary circulation（SC） of tropical storm Bilis（2006） using the potential vorticity（PV）-ω inversion method.We further analyze how secondary steering flows associated with mesoscale convective systems affected the track of tropical storm Bilis after it made landfall.The quasi-balanced asymmetric and axisymmetric circulation structures of tropical storm Bilis are represented well by the PV-w inversion.The magnitude of the nonlinear quasi-balanced vertical velocity is approximately 75%of the magnitude simulated using the Weather Research and Forecasting（WRF） model.The SC of Bilis（2006） contained two strong regions of ascending motion,both of which were located in the southwest quadrant of the storm.The first（150-200 km southwest of the storm center） corresponded to the eyewall region,while the second（approximately 400 km southwest of the storm center） corresponded to latent heat release associated with strong precipitation in major spiral rainbands.The SC was very weak in the northeast quadrant（the upshear direction）.Dynamical processes related to the environmental vertical wind shear produced an SC that partially offset the destructive effects of the environmental vertical wind shear（by 20%-25%）.This SC consisted of upward motion in the southwest quadrant and subsidence in the northeast quadrant,with airflow oriented from southwest to northeast at high altitudes and from northeast to southwest at lower levels.The inverted secondary zonal and meridional steering flows associated with continuous asymmetric mesoscale convective systems were about-2.14 and-0.7 m s^（-1）,respectively.These steering flows contributed substantially to the zonal（66.15%） and meridional（33.98%） motion of the storm at 0000 UTC15 July 2006.The secondary steering flow had a significant influence on changing the track of Bilis from southward to northward.The direction of the large-scale meridional steering flow（3.02 m s^（-1）） was opposite to the actual meridional motion（-2.06 m s^（-1））.

EFFECT OF THE THERMAL FORCING ON THE SECONDARY CIRCULATION OF TYPHOONS

A non-dimensional secondary circulation equation for typhoons has been derived and then 11-yr com- positing typhoon data were used to estimate the thermally forced secondary circulation.The main results have been obtained as follows: (1)The diabatic heating and Cu vertical heat mixing are major thermal forcing factors.They have the same magnitude of order.(2)The effects of eddy flux and Cu horizontal mixing of heat are of minor im- portance.(3)Ekman pumping and Cu vertical heat mixing cooperatively work.This feedback process is favorable for the enhancement of the secondary circulation of typhoons.

Observational and Mechanistic Analysis of a Nighttime Warm-Sector Heavy Rainfall Event Within the Subtropical High over the Southeastern Coast of China

In August 2021,a warm-sector heavy rainfall event under the control of the western Pacific subtropical high occurred over the southeastern coast of China.Induced by a linearly shaped mesoscale convective system(MCS),this heavy rainfall event was characterized by localized heavy rainfall,high cumulative rainfall,and extreme rainfall intensity.Using various observational data,this study first analyzed the precipitation features and radar reflectivity evolution.It then examined the role of environmental conditions and the relationship between the ambient wind field and convective initiation(CI).Furthermore,the dynamic lifting mechanism within the organization of the MCS was revealed by em-ploying multi-Doppler radar retrieval methods.Results demonstrated that the linearly shaped MCS,developed under the influence of the subtropical high,was the primary cause of the extreme rainfall event.High temperatures and humidity,coupled with the convergence of low-level southerly winds,established the environmental conditions for MCS develop-ment.The superposition of the convergence zone generated by the southerly winds in the boundary layer(925-1000 hPa)and the divergence zone in the lower layer(700-925 hPa)supplied dynamic lifting conditions for CI.Additionally,a long-term shear line(southerly southwesterly)offered favorable conditions for the organization of the linearly shaped MCS.The combined effects of strengthening low-level southerly winds and secondary circulation in mid-upper levels were influential factors in the development and maintenance of the linearly shaped MCS.

Analysis of Deep Convective Towers in a Southwest-Vortex Rainstorm Event

The structure and organization of the extreme-rain-producing deep convection towers and their roles in the formation of a southwest vortex(SWV)event are studied using the intensified surface rainfall observations,weather radar data and numerical simulations from a high-resolution convection-allowing model.The deep convection towers occurred prior to the emergence of SWV and throughout its onset and development stages.They largely resemble the vortical hot tower(VHT)commonly seen in typhoons or hurricanes and are thus considered as a special type of VHT(sVHT).Each sVHT presented a vorticity dipole structure,with the upward motion not superpose the positive vorticity.A positive feedback process in the SWV helped the organization of sVHTs,which in turn strengthened the initial disturbance and development of SWV.The meso-γ-scale large-value areas of positive relative vorticity in the mid-toupper troposphere were largely induced by the diabatic heating and tilting.The strong mid-level convergence was attributed to the mid-level vortex enhancement.The low-level vortex intensification was mainly due to low-level convergence and the stretching of upward flow.The meso-α-scale large-value areas of positive relative vorticity in the low-level could expand up to about 400 hPa,and gradually weakened with time and height due to the decaying low-level convergence and vertical stretching in the matured SWV.As the SWV matured,two secondary circulations were formed,with a weaker mean radial inflow than the outflow and elevated to 300-400 hPa.

The mechanism of the banded structure of drifting macroalgae in the Yellow Sea

At the end of May 2008,a massive bloom of macroalgae occurred in the western Yellow Sea off China and lasted for nearly two months,and annual blooms have occurred since then on. During bloom period,the surface-drifting macroalgae have showed an interesting pattern dominated by a banded structure,and the distance between neighboring bands ranged from hundreds of meters to about 6 km with a peak at 1–1.5 km,which is an order of higher than the scale of Langmuir circulation of 50–100 m. In order to explain this new phenomenon,ocean current data obtained from a Doppler current profiler off Qingdao was used to implement stability analysis. By numerically solving the resulting differential Orr-Sommerfeld equation,the secondary circulation induced from the instability of the Emkan current was found to fit well with the observed spatial scale of the surface-drifting macroalgae’s banded structure. As the wind driven Emkan current exist universally in the global ocean,it is reasonable to conclude that the banded structure with kilometers distance between adjoining bands is ubiquitous. We found a new circulation in the upper ocean which is important for exchange of energy,materials and gas between the upper ocean and subsurface layer.

Analysis of Non-geomorphic Wet Q Vector during a Rainstorm Process in Ulanqab

Based on NCEP/NCAR 1°×1°reanalysis data,according to the non-geostrophic wet Q vector,a rainstorm weather process in Ulanqab from July 24 to 25,2016 was diagnosed and analyzed.The results show that the rainstorm area in Ulanqab City had a good corresponding relationship with the convergence area of non-geostrophic wet Q vector and the rising motion area.The rainstorm occurred in the convergence area of non-geostrophic wet Q vector divergence,and the secondary circulation excited by the non-geostrophic wet Q vector was conducive to the maintenance and development of rainstorm.The falling area of rainstorm was located on the side of the ascending branch of the secondary circulation.The non-geostrophic wet Q vector provides a new idea for the forecast of rainstorm and its falling area in Ulanqab.

Effect of Mesoscale Land Use Change on Characteristics of Convective Boundary Layer:Semi-Idealized Large Eddy Simulations over Northwest China

Although large-scale topography and land use have been properly considered in weather and climate models, the effect of mesoscale and microscale heterogeneous land use on convective boundary layer(CBL) has not been fully understood yet. In this study, the influence of semi-idealized strip-like patches of oases and deserts, which resemble irrigated land use in Northwest China, on the CBL characteristics, is investigated based on the Weather Research and Forecasting(WRF)-large eddy simulation(LES) driven by observed land surface data. The influences of soil water content in oases on aloft CBL flow structure, stability, turbulent kinetic energy(TKE), and vertical fluxes are carefully examined through a group of sensitivity experiments. The results show that secondary circulation(SC)/turbulent organized structures(TOS) is the strongest/weakest when soil water content in oases is close to saturation(e.g.,when the oases are irrigated). With the decrease of soil water content in oases(i.e., after irrigation), SC(TOS) becomes weak(strong) in the lower and middle CBL, the flux induced by SC and TOS becomes small(large), which has a dramatic impact on point measurement of eddy covariance(EC) fluxes. The flux induced by SC and TOS has little influence on EC sensible heat flux, but great influence on EC latent heat flux. Under this circumstance, the area averaged heat flux cannot be represented by point measurement of flux by the EC method, especially just after irrigation in oases. Comparison of imbalance ratio(i.e., contribution of SC and TOS to the total flux) reveals that increased soil moisture in oases leads to a larger imbalance ratio as well as enhanced surface heterogeneity. Moreover,we found that the soil layer configuration at different depths has a negligible impact on the CBL flux properties.