Prediction of Cross-Tension Strength of Self-Piercing Riveted Joints Using Finite Element Simulation and XGBoost Algorithm

Self-piercing riveting(SPR)has been widely used in automobile industry,and the strength prediction of SPR joints always attracts the attention of researchers.In this work,a prediction method of the cross-tension strength of SPR joints was proposed on the basis of finite element(FE)simulation and extreme gradient boosting decision tree(XGBoost)algorithm.An FE model of SPR process was established to simulate the plastic deformations of rivet and substrate materials and verified in terms of cross-sectional dimensions of SPR joints.The residual mechanical field from SPR process simulation was imported into a 2D FE model for the cross-tension testing simulation of SPR joints,and cross-tension strengths from FE simulation show a good consistence with the experiment result.Based on the verified FE model,the mechanical properties and thickness of substrate materials were varied and then used for FE simulation to obtain cross-tension strengths of a number of SPR joints,which were used to train the regression model based on the XGBoost algorithm in order to achieve prediction for cross-tension strength of SPR joints.Results show that the cross-tension strengths of SPR steel/aluminum joints could be successfully predicted by the XGBoost regression model with a respective error less than 7.6%compared to experimental values.

Fatigue strength evaluation of self-piercing riveted joints of AZ31 Mg alloy and cold-rolled steel sheets

The application of magnesium alloys to automobiles is increasing due to their superior specific strength and specific stiffness.In this study,an upper sheet of AZ31 magnesium alloy and a lower sheet of cold-rolled steel were joined by self-piercing riveting(SPR),a method commonly used to join automotive panels.A cross-shaped specimen was fabricated with a punching force of 35 kN,which exhibited the best joint strength for the SPR joint specimen geometry.Monotonic and fatigue strengths were evaluated using cross-shaped specimens at loading angles of 0°,45°,and 90°.The load amplitude corresponding to the fatigue endurance limit was assumed to be at 106 cycles,and the fatigue ratios(=fatigue endurance limit/static strength)at the loading angles of 0°,45°,and 90°are 22%,13%,and 9%,respectively.For all three loading angle specimens,fatigue cracks initiated at the triple point where the rivet shank,the upper sheet and the lower sheet are in contact with each other,with the cracks propagating through the thickness of the upper sheet and ultimately leading to fracture.The fatigue lifetimes were evaluated through the von-Mises stress,maximum principal stress,and equivalent stress intensity factor.It was found that the fatigue lifetimes could be evaluated most appropriately through the maximum principal stress.

Mechanical joint performances of friction self-piercing riveted carbon fiber reinforced polymer and AZ31B Mg alloy

Carbon fiber reinforced polymer(CFRP) and AZ31B Mg alloy were joined by the friction self-piercing riveting(F-SPR) with different steel rivet shank sizes. With the increase of rivet shank size, lap shear fracture load and mechanical interlock distance increased. Ultrafine grains were formed at the joint in AZ31B as a result of dynamic recrystallization, which contributed to the higher hardness. Fatigue life of the CFRP-AZ31B joint was studied at various peak loads of 0.5, 1, 2, and 3 kN and compared with the resistance spot welded AZ31B-AZ31B from the open literature. The fatigue performance was better at higher peak load(>2 kN) and comparable to that of resistance spot welding of AZ31B to AZ31B at lower peak loads(<1 kN). From fractography, the crack initiation for lower peak load(<1 kN) case was observed at the fretting positions on the top and bottom surfaces of AZ31B sheet. When peak load was increased, fretting between the rivet and the top of AZ31B became more dominant to initiate a crack during fatigue testing.

An Overview of Self-piercing Riveting Process with Focus on Joint Failures, Corrosion Issues and Optimisation Techniques

Self-piercing riveting(SPR)is a cold forming technique used to fasten together two or more sheets of materials with a rivet without the need to predrill a hole.The application of SPR in the automotive sector has become increasingly popular mainly due to the growing use of lightweight materials in transportation applications.However,SPR joining of these advanced light materials remains a challenge as these materials often lack a good combination of high strength and ductility to resist the large plastic deformation induced by the SPR process.In this paper,SPR joints of advanced materials and their corresponding failure mechanisms are discussed,aiming to provide the foundation for future improvement of SPR joint quality.This paper is divided into three major sections:1)joint failures focusing on joint defects originated from the SPR process and joint failure modes under different mechanical loading conditions,2)joint corrosion issues,and 3)joint optimisation via process parameters and advanced techniques.

Friction self-piercing riveting(F-SPR)of aluminum alloy to magnesium alloy using a flat die

Friction self-piercing riveting(F-SPR)process based on a pip die has been invented to solve the cracking problems in riveting high-strength and low-ductility light metals,such as magnesium alloys,cast aluminum,and 7 series aluminum alloys.In this paper,in order to solve quality issues caused by the misalignment between rivet and pip-die in F-SPR,a flat-die based F-SPR process was proposed and employed to join 1.27 mm-thick AA6061-T6 to 3 mm-thick AZ31B.The results indicate that a 1.0 mm die distance is effective to avoid rivet upset and insufficient flaring.As the feed rate increases,the heat input in the whole process decreases,resulting in a larger riveting force,which in turn increases both the bottom thickness and interlock amount.Besides,solid-state bonding,including Al-Mg intermetallic compounds(IMCs),Al-Mg mechanical mixture,and Al-Fe atom interdiffusion was observed at the joint interfaces.The upper Al layer was softened,but the lower Mg layer was hardened,and both sheets exhibited a narrowed affected region with the increase of feed rate,while the rivet hardness shows no obvious change.Three fracture modes appeared accompanying the variations in lap-shear strength and energy absorption as the feed rate increased from 2 mm/s to 8 mm/s.Finally,the F-SPR process using a flat die was compared to those using a pip die and a flat bottom die to show the advantage of flat die on coping with the misalignment problem.

A Comparative Study of Friction Self-Piercing Riveting and Self-Piercing Riveting of Aluminum Alloy AA5182-O

In this paper,self-piercing riveting(SPR)and friction self-piercing riveting(F-SPR)processes were employed to join aluminum alloy AA5182-O sheets.Parallel studies were carried out to compare the two processes in terms of joint macrogeometry,tooling force,microhardness,quasi-static mechanical performance,and fatigue behavior.The results indicate that the F-SPR process formed both rivet–sheet interlocking and sheet–sheet solid-state bonding,whereas the SPR process only contained rivet–sheet interlocking.For the same rivet flaring,the F-SPR process required 63%less tooling force than the SPR process because of the softening effect of frictional heat and the lower rivet hardness of F-SPR.The decrease in the switch depth of the F-SPR resulted in more hardening of the aluminum alloy surrounding the rivet.The higher hardness of aluminum and formation of solid-state bonding enhanced the F-SPR joint stiffness under lap-shear loading,which contributed to the higher quasi-static lap-shear strength and longer fatigue life compared to those of the SPR joints.

Study of galvanic corrosion and mechanical joint properties of AZ31B and carbon-fiber–reinforced polymer joined by friction self-piercing riveting

A new testing methodology was developed to quantitively study galvanic corrosion of AZ31B and thermoset carbon-fiber–reinforced polymer spot-joined by a friction self-piercing riveting process.Pre-defined areas of AZ31B in the joint were exposed in 0.1 M NaCl solution over time.Massive galvanic corrosion of AZ31B was observed as exposure time increased.The measured volume loss was converted into corrosion current that was at least 48 times greater than the corrosion current of AZ31B without galvanic coupling.Ninety percent of the mechanical joint integrity was retained for corroded F-SPR joints to 200 h and then decreased because of the massive volume loss of AZ31B。

螺栓连接和拉铆连接在剪切循环荷载作用下的松动行为研究

拉铆连接凭借其优秀的防松性能,被应用于越来越多的工程领域。为研究国产新型拉铆钉在剪切循环荷载作用下的松动性能,以应用最为广泛的螺栓连接为对照,分别对规格为8 mm的4.8级普通螺栓、4.8级防松螺栓以及小规格拉铆钉进行剪切循环荷载下的松动试验研究,分析了三类连接在剪切循环荷载作用下的松动过程,研究了荷载幅值和频率对螺栓连接和拉铆连接松动行为的影响。结合微观测试手段分析其损伤形貌,进一步研究剪切循环荷载下螺栓和拉铆钉的防松原理及微动损伤机制。研究表明:在同种工况下拉铆连接的防松性能优于螺栓连接的防松性能;当荷载幅值增大或荷载频率减小时,螺栓连接和拉铆连接的松动程度增大;相较于螺栓,拉铆钉独特的圆弧结构牙型和铆接成型后牙型配合面的过盈配合机制,使其防松性能有明显提升;螺栓与拉铆钉的磨损机制主要是磨粒磨损和疲劳磨损。

Impact of Stack Orientation on Self-Piercing Riveted and Friction Self-Piercing Riveted Aluminum Alloy and Magnesium Alloy Joints

Self-piercing riveting(SPR)is a mature method to join dissimilar materials in vehicle body assembling.Friction self-piercing riveting(F-SPR)is a newly developed technology for joining low-ductility materials by combining SPR and friction stir spot welding processes.In this paper,the SPR and F-SPR were employed to join AA6061-T6 aluminum alloy and AZ31B magnesium alloy.The two processes were studied in parallel to investigate the effects of stack orientation on riveting force,macro-geomet-rical features,hardness distributions,and mechanical performance of the joints.The results indicate that both processes exhibit a better overall joint quality by riveting from AZ31B to AA6061-T6.Major cracking in the Mg sheet is produced when riveting from AA6061-T6 to AZ31B in the case of SPR,and the cracking is inhibited with the thermal softening effect by friction heat in the case of F-SPR.The F-SPR process requires approximately one-third of the riveting forces of the SPR process but exhibits a maximum of 45.4%and 59.1%higher tensile-shear strength for the stack orientation with AZ31B on top of AA6061-T6 and the opposite direction,respectively,than those of the SPR joints.The stack orientation of riveting from AZ31B to AA6061-T6 renders better cross-section quality and higher tensile-shear strength and is recommended for both processes.

Microstructural evolution in friction self-piercing riveted aluminum alloy AA7075-T6 joints

Friction self-piercing riveting(F-SPR)is an emerging technique for low ductility materials joining,which creates a mechanical and solid-state hybrid joint with a semi-hollow rivet.The severe plastic deformation of work materials and localized elevated temperatures during the F-SPR process yield complex and heterogeneous microstructures.The cut-off action of the work materials by the rivet further complicates the material flow during joint formation.This study employed the F-SPR process to join AA7075-T6 aluminum alloy sheets and systematically investigated the microstructural evolutions using electron backscatter diffraction(EBSD)techniques.The results suggested that as the base material approached the rivet,grains were deformed and recrystallized,forming two distinct fine grain zones(FGZs)surrounding the rivet and in the rivet cavity,re s pectively.Solid-state bonding of aluminum sheets occurred in the FGZs.The formation of FGZ outside the rivet is due to dynamic recrystallization(DRX)triggered by the sliding-to-sticking transition at the rivet/sheet interface.The FGZ in the rivet cavity was caused by the rotation of the trapped aluminum,which created a sticking affected zone at the trapped aluminum/lower sheet interface and led to DRX.Strain rate gradient in the trapped aluminum drove the further expansion of the sticking affected zone and resulted in grain refinement in a larger span.

Combined strengthening mechanism of solid-state bonding and mechanical interlocking in friction self-piercing riveted AA7075-T6 aluminum alloy joints

A recently developed friction self-piercing riveting(F-SPR)technique based on the combination of fric-tion stir processing and riveting has been reported to possess both solid-state bonding and mechanical fastening characteristics.However,there is still a lack of quantitative understanding of the hybrid en-hancement mechanism,hindering its engineering application.To fill in this gap,the current research investigated the microstructure evolution,microhardness distribution,and miniature-tensile performance of the aluminum alloy AA7075-T6 F-SPR joints by experiments.An accurate numerical simulation model was established to quantitatively evaluate the individual contributions of microstructure,local bonding strength,and macro interlocking to the performance of the joint,which could well explain the experi-mental results.It was found that due to the friction stirring of the rivet,solid-state bonding driven by dynamic recrystallization is realized between the trapped aluminum in the rivet cavity and the bottom aluminum sheet.The solid-state bonding zone has 75%yield strength,81%ultimate tensile strength,and 106%elongation compared to the base material.This solid-state bonding enables the internal interlock-ing between the trapped aluminum and the rivet to withstand the additional load,which forms a novel dual-interlock fastening mechanism and increases the peak cross-tension force by 14.3%compared to the single-interlock joint.

航空复合材料结构铆接技术综述

当前复合材料已成为飞机结构最主要的材料之一,然而我国复合材料应用与世界先进水平相比还存在一定差距,典型特征是复合材料用量占比较低。和金属结构相比,连接是复合材料结构制造与装配的薄弱环节,复合材料各向异性、脆性等特点决定了其连接面临的问题更复杂。复合材料结构采用铆接对于飞机减重、控制制造成本具有积极作用,但复合材料铆接易产生损伤,限制了其在关键连接部位应用。对航空复合材料结构铆接技术的应用进行了系统介绍,包括铆接工艺及方法、复材铆接结构形式和复材铆接所用紧固件;指出铆接过程中复合材料产生损伤的3个主要方面:制孔过程的损伤,铆接过程复合材料结构表面承受的冲击损伤,以及镦头成形、钉杆膨胀时对复合材料的挤压损伤;重点针对安装过程对复合材料造成的冲击损伤、铆钉膨胀对复合材料造成的挤压损伤进行分析并提出相应的解决措施,主要从减小钉杆膨胀对复材的挤压程度、对复合材料采取保护措施两个方面入手;对比研究结论认为,制定合理的工艺规范、采用先进的铆接工艺方法和重视垫圈的保护作用可以有效抑制复材铆接损伤、提高复材铆接质量。最后,对复合材料铆接技术的发展提出了展望。

轻质无框木基仿生夹芯板嵌入式连接极限抗拔力研究

针对轻质无框木基仿生夹芯板因中空而不易连接的问题,提出一种基于“双螺纹”嵌入式连接来增强嵌入螺母的抗拔强度。采用单因素试验法研究双螺纹嵌入螺母参数(长度、宽螺纹牙间距、牙高)以及引导孔直径和表板类型对轻质无框木基仿生夹芯板极限抗拔力的影响规律,作为对照在固定表板类型条件下,对比了M6拉铆螺母的极限抗拔力。结果表明:M6拉铆螺母适合安装在3 mm厚的椴木胶合板上。提升双螺纹嵌入式螺母的极限抗拔力,可增加螺母宽螺纹牙间距,降低宽螺母长度并选用较小直径的引导孔和厚度高且密度大的表板。

Flexible servo riveting system control strategy based on the RBF network and self-pierce riveting process

As more and more composite materials are used in lightweight vehicle white bodies,self-pierce riveting(SPR)technology has attracted great attention.However,the existing riveting tools still have the disadvantages of low efficiency and flexibility.To improve these disadvantages and the riveting qualification rate,this paper improves the control scheme of the existing riveting tools,and proposes a novel controller design approach of the flexible servo riveting system based on the RBF network and SPR process.Firstly,this paper briefly introduces the working principle and SPR procedure of the servo riveting tool.Then a moving component force analysis is performed,which lays the foundation for the motion control.Secondly,the riveting quality inspection rules of traditional riveting tools are used for reference to plan the force-displacement curve autonomously.To control this process,the riveting force is fed back into the closed-loop control of the riveting tool and the riveting speed is computed based on the admittance control algorithm.Then,this paper adopts the permanent magnet synchronous motor(PMSM)as the power of riveting tool,and proposes an integral sliding mode control approach based on the improved reaching law and the radial basis function(RBF)network friction compensation for the PMSM speed control.Finally,the proposed control approach is simulated by Matlab,and is applied to the servo riveting system designed by our laboratory.The simulation and riveting results show the feasibility of the designed controller.

Influence of die geometry on self-piercing riveting of aluminum alloy AA6061-T6 to mild steel SPFC340 sheets

The self-piercing riveting (SPR) process was used to join 2.0-mm-thick aluminum alloy 6061-T6 and 1.2-mm-thick mild steel SPFC340 sheets. SPR joints produced with a conventional flat-bottom die and conicalsection dies were investigated both experimentally and numerically. Lap shear tests were conducted under quasistatic conditions to evaluate the load-carrying capability of these SPR joints. The effect of variation in die geometry (such as variation in the die groove shape, cone height, and die radius) on the main mechanical response of the joints, namely the peak load and energy absorption, was discussed. The results showed that SPR joints produced with the conical-section dies exhibited a failure mode similar to those produced with a conventional die. All the joints failed by tearing of the top steel sheet. Cracks that occurred in the bottom aluminum alloy 6061-T6 sheet around the rivet leg were a result of tangential tensile stress. The cone height of a conical-section die is the most important parameter affecting the surface quality of Al/steel SPR joints. Conical-section dies with a moderate convex can ensure a good surface quality during the SPR process. In addition, SPR joints with single conical-section die allow higher tensile strength and energy absorption compared to those with double conical-section die.

半空心自冲铆成形性影响因素研究

阐述了机械连接技术在汽车白车身制造中的应用趋势,半空心自冲铆技术作为钢铝连接中最为广泛应用的技术,其过程工艺参数对白车身连接强度的影响至关重要。阐述了半空心自冲铆工艺和质量控制方法以及汽车量产过程中白车身半空心自冲铆常见的2种质量缺陷,分析了铆钉高度不足及封闭端破裂问题的影响因素,通过对铆接设备进行调试和铆接工艺参数优化,解决了铆钉高度超差和封闭端破裂质量缺陷,为白车身制造过程中质量问题的解决提供了解决思路和方向。

新旧构件铆接设计和可靠性研究

老构件在长期使用后,铆钉孔在受力后会发生不同程度的变形和错位,而引起板件密贴不实和钉孔偏移。此外,当铆合工作结束铆钉冷却时,铆钉收缩并把联结的各层紧挤在一起,铆钉内留有残余的夹紧力或内拉力。因此,有必要对老构件与新构件在铆钉约束条件下的连接设计方法进行研究,给出合理的设计公式,并对组合受力性能以及新旧组合构件的疲劳性能进行分析研究,对文物桥梁加固有很大的必要性。

铁路货车拉铆钉连接结构仿真模型简化分析

拉铆钉连接结构是铁路货车制造中使用的重要结构,已经越来越多地在新造货车和既有货车改造中应用。对于整车模型,在仿真分析时需要简化拉铆钉连接结构,但不同拉铆钉连接结构简化方式对仿真分析结果影响各异。通过对拉铆钉连接结构简化建模进行研究,并将有限元仿真与试验结果进行对比,找到了较为合理的拉铆钉连接结构仿真简化方法。

由单一机器人实现多平台铆接工艺的研究

由于铆接工艺多用于铝材连接,导致此工艺在汽车白车身上的使用具有局限性,因此在白车身上应用较少。为解决铆接工艺与其他基础工艺的兼容问题,基于此情况进行了多种铆接工艺的整合研究,设计由单一机器人实现多种铆接工艺的方案,并进行验证分析。主要包括自冲铆接工艺、无铆钉自冲铆接工艺、旋转攻丝铆接工艺的整合,同时对其他工艺的后期融合进行了客观分析。验证结果表明,多种铆接工艺整合可以在一个生产节拍中提高设备开动率,降低生产成本和能源消耗。

复合材料胶接结构湿态铆接对界面性能的影响研究

应用了复合材料结构胶钉混合连接胶粘剂湿态铆接的方法,规划了胶粘剂不同固化状态下铆接的界面剪切强度性能试验。对比原胶粘剂完全固化状态后再铆接的传统方法,湿态铆接剪切强度有一定提升,且可降低制造成本30%以上,缩短制造周期约50%,为后续同类结构在其他产品上的应用提供了一定技术基础。