Research on the Negative Implications of Shadow Education for Primary School Students

In today’s era,shadow education is becoming an important form of education in the education system.The pursuit of shadow education among parents and the dependence of students on it heightens its value.However,with the continuous development of shadow education,its profit-seeking nature has begun to appear,and many educational problems are surfacing in the development process.This paper studies shadow education on the basis of Marx’s educational theories,such as the theory of all-round development and game theory.It analyzes the implications of shadow education which are not conducive to social or personal development,in order to continuously improve shadow education,provide better assistance for mainstream school education,and promote the comprehensive development of primary school students.

Shadow Education in the Era of the Globalization:Comprehensive Prohibition or Active Encouragement?

With the acceleration of education democratization and the rapid development of education modernization,shadow education,as a prominent phenomenon in education globalization,has begun to develop rapidly.This paper challenges the different views of shadow education which has both positive and negative effect in the era of globalization and further discusses that shadow education should be actively encouraged from the perspective of knowledge economy,brain migration and higher education.

A Journey Along the Frontier:My Attempts to Bring Accountability to Shadow Education in Australia and Beyond

●This article provides insights into stakeholders'challenges while bringing educational accountability to private tutoring providers through a self-regulation model.There is no participant involved in this narrative inquiry study.●Policymakers may be ambivalent about bringing accountability as their families may benefit from private tutoring.●This account is written from the perspective of a teacher-trained tutor who has worked with policymakers to address some of the challenges.●This first-person narrative describes the experience of establishing a national peak body to bring greater accountability to private tutoring providers.This peak body is unique because it positions the educational interests of students as at least equal to providers'commercial interests.●The author believes that greater accountability for tutoring businesses is required in all markets and that issues will not resolve through self-regulation alone.

Researching Forms of Shadow Education:Methodological Challenges and Complexities of Private Supplementary Tutoring in Myanmar

Purpose:The growing literature on private supplementary tutoring,widely known as shadow education,addresses multiple dimensions and roles.However,many studies inadequately capture the diversity and implications of different forms of tutoring.This paper examines these matters in Myanmar,highlighting complexities and ambiguities in descriptors and in the nature of provision.Design/Approach/Methods:Using a mixed-methods design,this study was conducted in Mandalay Region and Chin State.The data were obtained from interviews with I10 Grade II students,34 high school teachers,30 parents,29 private tutoring providers,and two private school owners.Findings:The article categorizes tutoring forms based on their styles and orientations,particularly lecture-type teaching and homework supervision by guides,class sizes,durations of fee-charging(e.g,annually),the number of subjects taught per tutor,and tutoring locations.The study brings the topic out of the shadows for clearer analysis of the phenomenon and thus for assessment of its implications.OriginalityNalue:The study makes a methodological contribution to the wider picture by demonstrating the need for greater clarity and precision in the national and international comparative literatures.It also underscores shortcomings of predetermined categories in questionnaires and the value of qualitative interviews.

Shadow Education in Europe: Growing Prevalence, Underlying Forces, and Policy Implications

Purpose:Private supplementary tutoring,widely known as shadow education,has long been visible in East Asia,and now has spread to other parts of the world including Europe.This article maps the phenomenon,showing variations within Europe and analyzing its growth,underlying forces,and policy implications.Design/Approach/Methods:The article assembles a regional picture from available national sources.It focuses on the 28 members of the European Union.Findings:Within Europe,four subregions may be identified.Most prominent for the longest duration has been Southern Europe,pushed by political forces and cultural factors.In Eastern Europe,shadow education became prominent following the collapse of the Soviet Union and accompanying economic and social structures during which teachers and others had to earn extra incomes.In Western Europe,the advent of marketization alongside government schooling has fueled the growth of shadow education.Only in Northern Europe does shadow education remain modest in scale,but it is growing there too.Originality/Value:The article identifies forces underlying the growth of shadow education in Europe and highlights policy implications.By contributing this regional perspective to the wider literature on shadow education,the article permits juxtaposition with patterns in East Asia and elsewhere.

Shadow Education in Denmark:In the Light of the Danish History of Pedagogy and the Skepticism Toward Competition

Purpose:This article investigates the role of private supplementary tutoring in Denmark in light of the country’s pedagogical traditions in schools and leisure spheres.Design/Approach/Methods:Although tutoring activities are increasing,the phenomenon is not as prevalent in Denmark as in many other countries.In this article,we look into the history of Danish pedagogy for answers as to why this is the case.In the analytical sections of the article,we include research on parental values of child-rearing,as well as findings from a pilot study on Danish families purchasing private supplementary tutoring,the public debate about private tutoring,and contemporary youth research.Findings:With a solid emphasis on democracy and equality in Danish pedagogy,the conditions for increasing private supplementary tutoring in Denmark have been challenged.However,a current focus on global competition,formal competencies,and higher academic performance among children and young people suggests that providers of private tutoring perhaps face a brighter future—also in Denmark.Originality/Value:This article addresses a new field of qualitative research on private supplementary tutoring in Denmark and may be a platform for further reflection and empirical research.

Shadow Education Policy in Korea During the COVID-19 Pandemic

Purpose:This study systematically reviews Korea’s shadow education policies during the COVID-19 pandemic and the implications for shadow education policy development in the future.Design/Approach/Methods:In terms of approach,this policy review analyzes selected documents using the analytical framework of shadow education policies.Selected documents comprise recently revised decrees,policies,and regulations issued by the Korean Ministry of Education,as well as policy notices issued by the Korea Association of Hagwon.Data are supplemented by triangulation with news media content.Findings:This study identifies tutoring policies at the legal level in response to the COVID-19 pandemic.Government debate regarding shadow education largely centers on the closing of tutoring organizations and ensuring that online tuition fees adhere to government regulation.In respect to the expansion of the government-led shadow education partnership,the government’s increasing role in education has served to restrict the shadow education market.Originality/Value:The Korean government has adjusted its shadow education policies in response to COVID-19,altering its legal and economic status.An examination of Korea’s recent shadow education policies suggests future trends in the revision and development of shadow education in the country.

Modes and Trajectories of Shadow Education in Denmark and China:Fieldwork Reflections by a Comparativist

Purpose In the domain of shadow education(private supplementary tutoring),Denmark and China may be placed at opposite ends of a spectrum.Denmark has a recently emerged,small,and high-cost sector that mostly serves low achievers,while China has a more industrialized sector with a long history and economies of scale.The paper juxtaposes the two to shed light on each.Design/Approach/Methods The article is a personal narrative of the author's research experiences.She grew up and had initial education in China before moving to the Nordic realm for 2 years.This provided a set of initial lenses,which were subsequently deployed in research partnership from her current base in China with colleagues in Denmark.Findings The juxtaposition raises questions that might otherwise not have been asked and provides insights that might otherwise not have been gained.Danish families hesitate to use shadow education for advantages in the egalitarian society,in contrast to Chinese patterns that stress competition and achievement.These facets have implications for the modes of shadow education and even the names of tutorial companies.Originality/Value The paper has a methodological value in addition to its substantive insights on the trajectories of shadow education in the two countries.

Läxhjälp as Shadow Education in Sweden:The Logic of Equality in“A School for All”

Purpose:Taking läxhjälp/homework support in Sweden as a case,this article aims to further explore shadow education,especially as a pedagogical object from curriculum theory perspective.Design/Approach/Methods:Approaches including policy analyses,ethnomethodological work based on video-recorded interaction,and narratives have produced empirically grounded knowledge.We use examples from several substudies and analyze the reentry and regulation of supplementary education and how tutors and tutees interact in tutoring settings and negotiate identities in läxhjälp as well as the relation to regular schooling.Findings:Läxhjälp is conditioned by the logic of equality and changes in the governance of läxhjälp.The proliferation of different kinds of tutoring practices provided by various organizations calls for a broad definition of shadow education.With curriculum as boundary object,equality and academic success are foundational.Different settings and spatiotemporal arrangements affect modes of interaction,distribution of epistemic authority,and negotiations of identities.Originality/Value:With Sweden as a case,it is possible to explore shadow education in a new context,the Scandinavian welfare state,and its history of comprehensive education.Moreover,ethnomethodological interaction and narrative studies and curriculum perspectives are seldom employed within research on shadow education.A number of critical key boundary objects are identified.

Learning,Teaching,and Researching in Shadow Education in Hong Kong:An Autobiographical Narrative Inquiry

Purpose:This article aims to illustrate from the author’s insider perspective the lived experiences of engaging in private tutoring in Hong Kong as a tutee,a tutor,and a researcher and draw implications on several issues arising from the prevalence of shadow education.Design/Approach/Methods:This article adopted an autobiographical narrative approach.Data were collected through the author’s memoir of events,stimulated by the tutorial materials he used when he was a tutee and a tutor,his own video-recorded lessons of tutoring,and reflective journals from his research projects.Findings:Various issues are discussed based on the narrative of the author playing different roles in the tutoring industry,including(1)the positive and negative washback on mainstream education,(2)the lack of strict regulation of the quality of tutors and advertisements,and(3)how shadow education may exacerbate education inequality and how some tutorial companies and nonprofit organizations are addressing the issue.Originality/Value:This article,to the best of the author’s knowledge,is the only one that discusses the issues of shadow education from an author’s own personal experiences as a tutee,a tutor,and a researcher.It illustrates how practices and policies of the private tutoring industry are evolving in Hong Kong from an insider perspective.

Complexity of the Contexts:Features of Private Tutoring and Units for Comparison in the GCC Countries of the Middle East

Purpose:Private supplementary tutoringwidely known as shadow education because of the ways in which it mimics regular schooling-is increasingly visible across the globe.The Middle East is no exception,though the phenomenon has received relatively little attention in the English-language literature.This article maps some key features of shadow education,identifying ways in which contextual forces have shaped it.Design/Approach/Methods:The article focuses on patterns across and within the six members of the Gulf Cooperation Council(GCC),namely Bahrain,Kuwait,Oman,Qatar,Saudi Arabia,and the United Arab Emirates.It draws on literature in both Arabic and English and shows the value of multipleunits of comparison.Findings:Private tutoring has a long history as a significant phenomenon in some GCC countries,but in others developed more recently.Some governments have had active policies to dampen the phenomenon,but with little success.Factors in the complex dynamics include social,economic andcultural forces.OriginalityValue:The article assembles literature from around the region,noting both commonalities and diversities among GCC members.It contributes to the global literature by providing the regional mapping from this specific part of the world and by showing comparisons with other world regions.

Supplementary Tutoring for Compulsory Education Students in China:Status and Trends

Purpose-The purpose of this paper is to explore the current status of,and developmental trends affecting,the participation in supplementary tutoring by compulsory education students in China.Design/Approach/Methods-Based on the data from the China Family Panel Study(CFPS)conducted by the Peking University Institute of Social Science Survey in 2010,2012,2014,and 2016,the paper uses the method of multilevel linear model to comprehensively analyze problems involving a multilevel data structure.Findings-The paper finds that the proportion of compulsory education students participating in supplementary tutoring(and the expenditure on such tutoring)increased annually before declining in 2016.Students with higher socioeconomic status,higher school quality,and better academic performance have a higher tutoring participation rate and also spend more on tutoring.Students in China’s three northeastern provinces and eastern coastal areas have higher participation rates in tutoring and higher tutoring expenditures.Originality/Value-Supplementary tutoring in China already has its own developmental patterns and trends;however,few scholars have empirically studied the developmental patterns and trends of supplementary tutoring in compulsory education based on longitudinal survey data.

Regulating Private Tutoring in China:Uniform Policies,Diverse Responses

Purpose:This article examines responses from the tutoring sector to Chinese national and local government regulations on private supplementary tutoring.It adds to the literature on policy enactment,showing the importance of context and noting the diversity of tutoring providers compared with schools.Design/Approach/Methods:The article draws on semi-structured and informal interviews with 11 tutors,15 managers of tutoring enterprises,5 members and managers of professional organizations,5 government officials,5 school managers,5 teachers,and 20 parents.Data from interviewees were triangulated with observations,news reports,blogs written by tutoring analysts,and ad hoc research by industrial observers.Findings:Policy enactment in the tutoring sector is even more complex than that for schooling.Standardized policies do not necessarily achieve the aspired goals.Originality/Value:The article adds to the literature not only in China but also internationally.It highlights the importance of distinguishing between aspirations and realities in this domain.It also proposes conceptual considerations for regulating tutoring,given its diverse and fluid nature.

English Private Tutoring in Macao:Perceptions of Senior Secondary Three Students

Purpose:This article examines how individual,school,and social factors shape the perceptions of students in Senior Secondary Three(SS3;in some schools called Form Six[F6])toward English private tutoring in Macao.Design/Approach/Methods:This is a comparative study of two F6 classes of an English-medium secondary school and four SS3 classes of a Chinese-medium secondary school in Macao,with a total number of 145 students.Mixed-methods approach(questionnaires and interviews)is employed in the study.Findings:The respondents’participation in English tutoring is not very intensive.They prefer to receive government-subsidized after-school tutoring taught by their schoolteachers more than feepaying English tutoring taught by tutors outside.Low level of social competition and high tertiary enrollment rates contribute to this phenomenon.Students’needs and beliefs in English learning play key roles in determining their receipt of English tutoring.Originality/Value:Teachers may need better understanding of their students’needs so as to design suitable pedagogies.Schools can consider more fully the types of tutoring that they provide for different kinds of pupils.The government-subsidized after-school tutoring could be a plausible way to reduce educational inequality.

“They Would Do Just Fine Without Me”:Experiences of Private Tutoring in Denmark

Purpose:Building on a qualitative case study of parents and tutors previously involved with a large commercial tutoring company,this article investigates experiences of private tutoring in Denmark.Design/Approach/Methods:The case study centers around an affective analysis of eight interviews—three parents and five tutors—centering on why and how the interlocutors decided to hire services from or work for the tutoring company.Findings:The article illustrates how the parents’and tutors’experiences of private tutoring are colored by a series of affective patterns that set the tone for how the parents and tutors make sense of and feel about the phenomenon.Three patterns are drawn forth which together sustain the“mood”in which the parents and tutors encounter the tutoring phenomenon:teacher intimacy,institutional professionalism,and nonexclusivity.Originality/Value:The article provides an empirically grounded perspective on the stakes of commercializing education in spaces characterized by egalitarian ideals in education.

Tiger Parenting Beyond Cultural Essentialism:Discourses of Class,Culture,and Competition in Hong Kong

Purpose:This study explores a nuanced understanding of tiger parenting by moving beyond cultural essentialist perspectives and an East(Chinese)-versus-West binary framework.Design/Approach/Methods:The study draws on data from 80 parents in Hong Kong SAR,an example of a culturally-hybrid East Asian metropolis.We applied maximum variation sampling to recruit participants with diverse school choices encompassing different education levels,occupa-tions,social classes,and ethnicities.We used semi-structured interviews to investigate parental beliefs,practices,and understandings of tiger parenting.Findings:The findings suggest that tiger parenting is a cross-class and cross-culture phenomenon that would be more fruitfully analyzed by considering parental mindsets,educational structures,peer pressure,generational influences,cultural roots,class preferences,and global aspirations.We posit that tiger parenting and similar parenting practices are increasingly necessitated by fiercely competitive education systems,and becoming globalized across ethnic groups and social class spectrums.Originality/Value:This study contributes to the discussion on tiger parenting by highlighting previously understudied factors underpinning the concept.We argue that our analytical approach avoids the previous narrow and cultural essentialist understanding of tiger parenting,and advances the theoretical cogency of the concept.