Deformation, Phase Transformation and Recrystallization in the Shear Bands Induced by High-Strain Rate Loading in Titanium and Its Alloys

α-titanium and its alloys with a dual-phase structure （α＋β） were deformed dynamically under strain rate of about 10^4 s^-1. The formation and microstructural evolution of the localized shear bands were characterized by scanning electron microscopy （SEM） and transmission electron microscopy （TEM）. The results reveal that both the strain and strain rate should be considered simultaneously as the mechanical conditions for shear band formation, and twinning is an important mode of deformation. Both experimental and calculation show that the materials within the bands underwent a superhigh strain rate （9×10^5 S^-1） deformation, which is two magnitudes of that of average strain rate required for shear band formation; the dislocations in the bands can be constricted and developed into cell structures; the phase transformation from α to α2 within the bands was observed, and the transformation products （α2） had a certain crystallographic orientation relationship with their parent; the equiaxed grains with an average size of 10 μm in diameter observed within the bands are proposed to be the results of recrystallization.

Shear bands of as-cast and semi-solid Ti_(48)Zr_(27)Cu_(6)Nb_(5)Be_(14)bulk metallic glass matrix composites

The as-cast Ti_(48)Zr_(27)Cu_(6)Nb_(5)Be_(14)bulk metallic glass matrix composites(BMGMCs)were fabricated using a copper mold suction casting method.Then,the semi-solid BMGMC samples were obtained following an isothermal treatment(heating at 900°C for 10 min,then cooling with water).The microstructure and compression property were investigated by scanning electronic microscopy(SEM)and universal mechanical tester.As a result of the isothermal treatment,the crystal shapes change from fine,granular,and dendritic to spherical or vermicular,and the average crystal size of the as-cast and semi-solid samples is 2.2μm and 18.1μm,respectively.The plasticity increases from 5.31%in the as-cast to 10.23%in the semi-solid samples,with an increase of 92.66%.The shear bands from different areas of the side surfaces of as-cast and semisolid compression fracture samples were observed.The characteristic changes of multiplicity,bend,branch and intersection of shear bands in different areas indicate that the deformation of as-cast and semi-solid samples is non-uniform during compression.It is found that poor plasticity of the as-cast samples or good plasticity of the semi-solid samples are reflected by characteristics of the shear bands.The semi-solid isothermal treatment improves the plasticity by forming large crystals which can block the expansion of shear bands and promote the multiplicity of shear bands.

Development of the Shear Bandsin Saturated Soil

This paper describes the development of shear bands in saturated soil under simple shear using a matching technique at the moving boundary of a shear band, and it is shown that the development of shear bands is affected by the coupling strain rate and pore pressure of material.Some numerical solutions have been presented.

Evolution of cracks in the shear bands of granite residual soil

The evolution of shear bands and cracks plays an important role in landslides.However,there is no systematic method for classification of the cracks,which can be used to analyze the evolution of cracks in shear bands.In this study,X-ray computed tomography(CT)is used to observe the behavior of granite residual soil during a triaxial shear process.Based on the digital volume correlation(DVC)method,a crack classification method is established according to the connectivity characteristics of cracks before and after loading.Cracks are then divided into six classes:obsolete,brand-new,isolated,split,combined,and compound.With evolution of the shear bands,a large number of brand-new cracks accelerate the damages of materials at the mesoscale,resulting in a sharp decrease in strength.The volume of brandnew cracks increases rapidly with increasing axial strain,and their volume is greater than 50%when the strain reaches 12%,while the volume of compound cracks decreases from 54%to 21%.As cracks are the weakest areas in a material,brand-new cracks accelerate the development of shear bands.Finally,the coupling effect of shear bands and cracks destroys the soil strength.

Adiabatic Shear Bands in 30CrNi_3MoV Structural Steel Induced during High Speed Cutting

The width and spacing of adiabatic shear bands (ASBs) in the serrated chips generated during high speed orthogonal cutting of 30CrNi3MoV structurai steel were measured by opticai microscopy (OM), the temperature rise in the shear band was estimated. The microstructures of the ASBs were also characterized by SEM and TEM. The results show that the width and spacing of ASBs decrease with the increase of the cutting speed. The further observations show that the microstructure between the matrix and the center of the ASB gradually changes, and that the martensitic phase transformation, carbide precipitation and recrystallization may occur in the ASB.

Mesoscopic measurement of damage and shear bands of granite residual soil using Micro-CT and digital volume correlation

The mesomechanics of geotechnical materials are closely related to the macromechanical properties,especially the mesoscale evolution of shear bands,which is helpful for understanding the failure mechanism of geotechnical materials.However,there is lack of effective quantitative analysis method for the complex evolution mechanism of threedimensional shear bands.In this work,we used X-ray computed tomography(CT)to reconstruct volume images and used the digital volume correlation(DVC)method to calculate the three-dimensional strain fields of granite residual soil samples at different loading stages.The trend of the failure surface of the shear bands was obtained by the planar fitting method,and the connectivity index was constructed according to the projection characteristics of the shear bands on the failure trend surface.The results support the following findings:the connectivity index of the shear band increases rapidly and then slowly with increasing axial strain,which is characterized by a near'S'curve.As the stress reaches the peak value,the connectivity index of the shear bands almost exceeds 0.7.The contribution of the new shear band volume to the connectivity of the shear bands becomes increasingly small with increasing axial loading.Affected by quartz grains and stress at the initial stage,the dip angle gradually and finally approaches the included angle of the maximum shear stress from the discrete state with increasing axial loading.The tendency and dip angle of the resulting shear bands are dynamic,and the tendency slightly deflects with increasing loading.

Microstructural Characterization of the Shear Bands in Fe-Cr-Ni Single Crystal by EBSD

An investigation has been made into the microstructural characterization of the shear bands generated under high-strain rate （≈10^4 s^-1） deformation in Fe-15%Cr-15%Ni single crystal by EBSD-SEM （electron backscatter diffraction-scanning electron microscopy）, TEM （transmission electron in microscopy） and HREM （high- resolution electron microscopy）. The results reveal that the propagation of the shear band exhibits an asymmetrical behavior arising from inhomogenous distribution in plasticity in the bands because of different resistance to the collapse in different crystallographic directions; The γ-ε-α′phase transformations may take place inside and outside the bands, and these martensitic phases currently nucleate at intersections either between the twins and deformation bands or between the twins and ε-sheet. Investigation by EBSD shows that recrystallization can occur in the bands with a grain size of an average of 0.2μm in diameter. These nano-grains are proposed to attribute to the results of either dynamic or static recrystallization, which can be described by the rotational recrystallization mechanism. Calculation and analysis indicate that the strain rate inside the shear band can reach 2.50×10^6 s^-1, which is higher, by two or three orders of magnitude, than that exerted dynamically on the specimen tested.

Distinct element method investigation on mechanical behavior within shear bands in granulates under the Earth and the Moon conditions

This letter mainly aims to investigate the mechanical behavior within shear bands in regolith both under the Earth and the Moon conditions via the distinct element method, in which a novel contact model considering interparticle van der Waals forces and rolling resistance is employed. The results show that for regolith under both conditions the stress paths are almost identical inside and outside the shear bands but void ratio, average pure rotation rate, and strain paths are rather distinct with dilation, particle rotation and the second invariant of strain tensor mainly occurring within the bands. However, the regolith under the Moon condition has higher peak strength and more significant strain localization than those under the Earth condition.

Atomistic Investigation of Shock-Induced Amorphization within Micro-shear Bands in Hexagonal Close-Packed Titanium

The mechanical response of a single crystal titanium sample against(0001)α surface impact was investigated using molecular dynamics simulation.Remarkably,non-uniform plastic deformation was observed in the sample.At high strain rates,amorphization occurred near the edge of the contact region where severe shear strain induced a large number of stacking faults(SFs)and dislocations.In contrast,the central part of the contact region underwent less deformation with significantly fewer dislocations.Moreover,instead of amorphization by consuming SFs and dislocations,there was a gradual increase in the density of dislocations and SFs during the process of amorphization.These local amorphous regions eventually grew into shear bands.

A Review of Microstructural Evolution in the Adiabatic Shear Bands Induced by High Speed Machining

Investigations made by the authors and collaborators into the microstructural and fracture aspects of adiabatic shear bands （ASBs） of the hardened steels and Ti alloys induced by high speed machining （HSM） are briefly reviewed. The principal findings are the following： （a） the microstructure inside the ASBs varies from the band center to the normal chip material, the gradient microstructures are found; （b） the HSM can produce two types of ASBs with increasing in cutting speed, the deformed shear bands formed at lower cutting speed and the transformed shear bands formed at higher cutting speed; （c） the very small equiaxed recrystallized grains are observed in the center of the ASBs, the dynamic recrystallization and phase transformation may occur simultaneously during the formation of the transformed ASBs; （d） The dynamic rotational recrystallization is the origin of the equiaxed grains in the center of the ASBs. A microstructural evolution model in ASBs produced during HSM for the harden steel is proposed; （e） the microstructural pattern of fracture surface is characterised by the elongated dimples. A microcosmic adiabatic shear fracture model during HSM of the hardened steel is built up.

On the material invariant of 110°-conjugate angle of shear bands——Reply to Gomez-Rivas and Griera(2015)

After their experimental data were re-explained in terms of the maximum-effective-moment （MEM） criterion, Gomez-Rivas and Griera （2015） challenge the validity of the MEM-Criterion in terms of shear fractures, which have mixed up with shear fractures and shear bands. The two features are similar in appearance but different in deformation mechanism （s）. The MEM-criterion proves that ±55° to σ1era are the maximum effective moment directions and the shear bands that formed by mate- rial-line （beddings or fabrics） rotation mechanism have a constant conjugate angle of 110°. Theoretically, the 55° or 110° is a material-invariant, and practically, a statistic-invariant or preferred direction with average deviation of -10°. By this angle, shear bands can be easily recognized from shear fractures with conjugate angle never over 90°. The High-strain deformation in the lozenges usually predates the surrounding shear bands. Two stress states can not coexisted simultaneously in the same place and the resolving cr1＇ normal to the related shear zone represents 0-100% deformation partitioning, depending on the original kinematic vorticity of the shear zones.

"Extended" shear bands in interior of Pd-based bulk metallic glasses

Shear bands in the interior of Pd（79）Cu6Si（10）P5,Pd（79）Cu3Ag3Si（10）P5, and Pd（79）Cu4Au2Si（10）P5 bulk metallic glasses were investigated by optical microscopy（OM） and scanning electron microscopy（SEM）. No shear bands can be observed in the samples before etching. By etching in aqua regia solution, shear bands are found to be susceptible to preferential etching, and multiple etched bands could be observed. The thickness of the etched bands is about 1-7 μm. Therefore, the preferentially etched shear bands found in the study are called the ＂extended＂ shear bands.The ＂extended＂ shear bands can be divided into three classes according to their features： early, developing, and well-developed ＂extended＂ shear bands with thickness of about 1, 5, and 7 μm, respectively. The interface between the well-developed ＂extended＂ shear bands and the matrix is clearer than that of the others.

Multi-scale crystal plasticity finite element simulations of the microstructural evolution and formation mechanism of adiabatic shear bands in dual-phase Ti20C alloy under complex dynamic loading

A dynamic compression test was performed on α+β dual-phase titanium alloy Ti20C using a split Hopkinson pressure bar.The formation of adiabatic shear bands generated during the compression process was studied by combining the proposed multi-scale crystal plasticity finite element method with experimental measurements.The complex local micro region load was progressively extracted from the simulation results of a macro model and applied to an established three-dimensional multi-grain microstructure model.Subsequently,the evolution histories of the grain shape,size,and orientation inside the adiabatic shear band were quantitatively simulated.The results corresponded closely to the experimental results obtained via transmission electron microscopy and precession electron diffraction.Furthermore,by calculating the grain rotation and temperature rise inside the adiabatic shear band,the microstructural softening and thermal softening effects of typical heavily-deformed α grains were successfully decoupled.The results revealed that the microstructural softening stress was triggered and then stabilized(in general)at a relatively high value.This indicated that the mechanical strength was lowered mainly by the grain orientation evolution or dynamic recrystallization occurring during early plastic deformation.Subsequently,thermal softening increased linearly and became the main softening mechanism.Noticeably,in the final stage,the thermal softening stress accounted for 78.4% of the total softening stress due to the sharp temperature increase,which inevitably leads to the stress collapse and potential failure of the alloy.

Microstructure evaluation of shear bands of microcutting chips in AA6061 alloy under the mechanochemical effect

The mechanochemical effect on the microcutting of AA6061 alloy is studied through characterization on the chip. A pronounced reduction of machining forces and chip thickness was observed with mechanochemical effect during microcutting. Furthermore, electron backscattered diffraction(EBSD) and transmission electron microscopy(TEM) observations were performed on the chips and shear bands. The result reveals much coarser grains(24.6 μm in size) in the surfactant-affected chip than that in the surfactant-free chip(13.5 μm). Different grain orientations are induced by microcutting. {100}<001> and{110}<112> grain orientations are majority for surfactant-free chip, and {110}<001> and {100}<110>dominate most for all grain orientations for surfactant-affected chip. Additionally, since less localized shear strain and lower temperature are generated inside the shear band with mechanochemical effect,almost no recrystallization phenomena can be observed in this region. TEM analysis shows that fewer subgrains and dislocations could be observed inside the shear band of the surfactant-affected chip in comparison with the surfactant-free chip. Based on the high-resolution transmission electron microscopic(HRTEM) observations, dislocations were observed at the atomic scale. The results show that the main dislocation motion mode in shear bands of surfactant-free and surfactant-affected chips are dislocation climb and dislocation glide, respectively.

On the formation of shear bands in a metallic glass under tailored complex stress fields

The formation of shear bands in metallic glasses(MGs)was examined by tailoring localized complex stress fields(LCSFs).The findings have shown that the LCSFs in MGs can increase the localization of strained atoms and accelerate the release of accumulated deformation energy for initiating a shear band in confined and thin-layered regions.The findings not only add more knowledge to the formation mechanisms of shear bands in MGs,but also provide possible rationale for the discrepancies in the mechanical properties of different-sized MGs.As compared with the bulk samples,the higher strength and larger elastic limits in nanoscaled MGs could be attributed to the elimination of stress-concentrators,which can serve as LCSFs.

Failure transition of shear-to-dilation band of rock salt under triaxial stresses

Great potential of underground gas/energy storage in salt caverns seems to be a promising solution to support renewable energy.In the underground storage method,the operating cycle unfortunately may reach up to daily or even hourly,which generates complicated pressures on the salt cavern.Furthermore,the mechanical behavior of rock salt may change and present distinct failure characteristics under different stress states,which affects the performance of salt cavern during the time period of full service.To reproduce a similar loading condition on the cavern surrounding rock mass,the cyclic triaxial loading/unloading tests are performed on the rock salt to explore the mechanical transition behavior and failure characteristics under different confinement.Experimental results show that the rock salt samples pre-sent a diffused shear failure band with significant bulges at certain locations in low confining pressure conditions(e.g.5 MPa,10 MPa and 15 MPa),which is closely related to crystal misorientation and grain boundary sliding.Under the elevated confinement(e.g.20 MPa,30 MPa and 40 MPa),the dilation band dominates the failure mechanism,where the large-size halite crystals are crushed to be smaller size and new pores are developing.The failure transition mechanism revealed in the paper provides additional insight into the mechanical performance of salt caverns influenced by complicated stress states.

Effect of Aspect Ratio on the Evolution of Shear Bands in Zr_(61.7)Al_8Ni_(13)Cu_(17)Sn_(0.3)Bulk Metallic Glass

Zr61.7A18Ni13Cu17Sn0.3 bulk metallic glass samples with different aspect ratios in the range of 0.25-2.25 were deformed by compression, and the effect of aspect ratio on the evolution of shear bands was investigated. It is found that for the deformed Zr61.7AlaNi13CulTSno3 bulk metallic glass, the average shear band spacing decreases and the shear band density increases monotonically as the aspect ratio increases from 0.25 to 2.25. A minimal average shear band spacing of 0.478μm is achieved for the sample with an aspect ratio of 2.25. In addition, the fractions of shear bands with spacings below 100 and 50 nm are about 12.84% and 6.76%, respectively, for the sample with an aspect ratio of 2.25. The reason for the formation of a higher density of shear bands can probably be attributed to the increase of the driving force for the samole with a larger aspect ratio.

Fractography and morphology of shear bands of a Zr-based bulk metallic glass

Bulk metallic glasses（BMGs）have attracted considerable attention in the last few decades particularly triggered by their potential applications as novel structural and/or functional materials,owing to their superior strength,large elastic strain limit and relatively low Young′s modulus etc.compared to their crystalline counterparts.Here,a 3Dreconstruction application to the fractography and the morphology of shear bands was reported for a ductile Zr_（56）Co_（28）Al_（16）（at.%）BMG through a Phenom series desktop scanning electron microscope.The results of the 3Dreconstruction and the following contour analysis indicate a typical shear fracture mode for the investigated alloy.It is inferred that the fractography and the morphology of shear bands might be dependent on their composition,structure states,and loading conditions for BMGs.

Effect of pre-existing shear bands on mechanical properties and serration behaviors in bulk metallic glasses

Pre-existing（multiple）shear bands were introduced into the ductile Zr56Co28Al16 and Zr65Ni10Cu15Al10bulk metallic glasses（BMGs）through the lateral-deformation,respectively.It was found that the pre-exiting shear bands can further enhance the compressive plasticity of ductile BMGs.According to the serration analysis on the plastic deformation of the as-cast and the pre-deformed samples,the serration events in the stress-strain curves during deformation display a self-organized critical（SOC）behavior.Compared with the as-cast BMGs,a larger power-law scaling exponent calculated based on serrated flow behaviors becomes larger for the pre-deformed BMGs,implying that the shear banding stability of BMGs is effectively enhanced.This should be caused by the pronounced interactions of shear bands during plastic deformation for the pre-deformed BMGs.However,by introducing a large amount of multiple shear bands into the glassy matrix,it also becomes easier for shear bands to propagate along the pre-existing shear bands,leading to a lower cut-off elastic energy density for the pre-deformed BMGs.More multiple shear bands with stronger interactions for the pre-deformed BMGs could provide a larger chance to activate the shear-band cracking but less local elastic energies are remained for the subsequent crack-linking.

Interactions of Shear Bands in a Ductile Metallic Glass

Shear bands play a key role in the plastic deformation of metallic glasses（MGs）.Even though there are extensive studies on the initiation and propagation of shear bands,the interactions among them have not been systematically studied yet.The interactions between the primary shear bands（PSBs）and secondary shear bands（SSBs）in a ductile Zr-based MG were studied.The residual stress near PSBs can deflect the propagation direction and reduce the propagation velocity of SSBs,which contributes to the plasticity and toughness of the MG.It was demonstrated that the probability and strength of the interactions between PSBs and SSBs would become stronger for MGs with larger Young′s modulus and smaller shear modulus,i.e.,larger Poisson′s ratio.These results are valuable in understanding the plastic deformation of MGs and may be helpful in designing new MGs with desirable mechanical properties.