Comparisons of passive microwave remote sensing sea ice concentrations with ship-based visual observations during the CHINARE Arctic summer cruises of 2010–2018

In order to apply satellite data to guiding navigation in the Arctic more effectively,the sea ice concentrations(SIC)derived from passive microwave(PM)products were compared with ship-based visual observations(OBS)collected during the Chinese National Arctic Research Expeditions(CHINARE).A total of 3667 observations were collected in the Arctic summers of 2010,2012,2014,2016,and 2018.PM SIC were derived from the NASA-Team(NT),Bootstrap(BT)and Climate Data Record(CDR)algorithms based on the SSMIS sensor,as well as the BT,enhanced NASA-Team(NT2)and ARTIST Sea Ice(ASI)algorithms based on AMSR-E/AMSR-2 sensors.The daily arithmetic average of PM SIC values and the daily weighted average of OBS SIC values were used for the comparisons.The correlation coefficients(CC),biases and root mean square deviations(RMSD)between PM SIC and OBS SIC were compared in terms of the overall trend,and under mild/normal/severe ice conditions.Using the OBS data,the influences of floe size and ice thickness on the SIC retrieval of different PM products were evaluated by calculating the daily weighted average of floe size code and ice thickness.Our results show that CC values range from 0.89(AMSR-E/AMSR-2 NT2)to 0.95(SSMIS NT),biases range from−3.96%(SSMIS NT)to 12.05%(AMSR-E/AMSR-2 NT2),and RMSD values range from 10.81%(SSMIS NT)to 20.15%(AMSR-E/AMSR-2 NT2).Floe size has a significant influence on the SIC retrievals of the PM products,and most of the PM products tend to underestimate SIC under smaller floe size conditions and overestimate SIC under larger floe size conditions.Ice thickness thicker than 30 cm does not have a significant influence on the SIC retrieval of PM products.Overall,the best(worst)agreement occurs between OBS SIC and SSMIS NT(AMSR-E/AMSR-2 NT2)SIC in the Arctic summer.

A study on remote sensing models of sea ice thickness by microwave radiometry

Extrapolating from the propagation theories of electromagnetic waves in a layered medium, a three-layer medium model is deduced in this paper by using microwave radiometric remote sensing technology which is suitable to first-year sea ice condition of the northern part of China seas. Comparison with in situ data indicates that for microwave wavelength of 10 cm, the coherent model gives a quite good fit result for the thickness of sea ice less than 20 cm, and the incoherent model also works well for thickness within 20 to 40 cm. Based on three theoretical models, the inversion soft ware from microwave remote sensing data for calculating the thickness of sea ice can be set up. The relative complex dielectrical constants of different types of sea ice in the Liaodong Gulf calculated by using these theoretical models and measurement data are given in this paper. The extent of their values is (0. 5-4. 0)-j(0. 07~0. 19).

A lake ice phenology dataset for the Northern Hemisphere based on passive microwave remote sensing

Lake ice phenology(LIP)is an essential indicator of climate change and helps with understanding of the regional characteristics of climate change impacts.Ground observation records and remote sensing retrieval products of lake ice phenology are abundant for Europe,North America,and the Tibetan Plateau,but there is a lack of data for inner Eurasia.In this work,enhanced-resolution passive microwave satellite data(PMW)were used to investigate the Northern Hemisphere Lake Ice Phenology(PMW LIP).The Freeze Onset(FO),Complete Ice Cover(CIC),Melt Onset(MO),and Complete Ice Free(CIF)dates were derived for 753 lakes,including 409 lakes for which ice phenology retrievals were available for the period 1978 to 2020 and 344 lakes for which these were available for 2002 to 2020.Verification of the PMW LIP using ground records gave correlation coefficients of 0.93 and 0.84 for CIC and CIF,respectively,and the corresponding values of the RMSE were 11.84 and 10.07 days.The lake ice phenology in this dataset was significantly correlated(P<0.001)with that obtained from Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer(MODIS)data-the average correlation coefficient was 0.90 and the average RMSE was 7.87 days.The minimum RMSE was 4.39 days for CIF.The PMW is not affected by the weather or the amount of sunlight and thus provides more reliable data about the freezing and thawing process information than MODIS observations.The PMW LIP dataset pro-vides the basic freeze-thaw data that is required for research into lake ice and the impact of climate change in the cold regions of the Northern Hemisphere.The dataset is available at http://www.doi.org/10.11922/sciencedb.j00076.00081.

Review of snow water equivalent microwave remote sensing

Accurate quantitative global scale snow water equivalent information is crucial for meteorology, hydrology, water cycle and global change studies, and is of great importance for snow melt-runoff forecast, water resources management and flood control. With land surface process model and snow process model, the snow water equivalent can be simulated with certain accuracy, with the forcing data as input. However, the snow water equivalent simulated using the snow process models has large uncertainties spatially and temporally, and it may be far from the needs of practical applications. Thus, the large scale snow water equivalent information is mainly from remote sensing. Beginning with the launch of Nimbus-7 satellite, the research on microwave snow water equivalent remote sensing has developed for more than 30 years, researchers have made progress in many aspects, including the electromagnetic scattering and emission modeling, ground and airborne experiments, and inversion algorithms for future global high resolution snow water equivalent remote sensing program. In this paper, the research and progress in the aspects of electromagnetic scattering/emission modeling over snow covered terrain and snow water equivalent inversion algorithm will be summarized.

Spatial and Temporal Variability of Snow Depth Derived from Passive Microwave Remote Sensing Data in Kazakhstan

Snow cover plays an important role in the hydrological cycle and water management in Kazakhstan. However, traditional observations do not meet current needs. In this study, a snow depth retrieval equation was developed based on passive microwave remote sensing data. The average snow depth in winter （ASDW）, snow cover duration （SCD）, monthly maximum snow depth （MMSD）, and annual average snow depth （AASD） were derived for each year to monitor the spatial and temporal snow distributions. The SCD exhibited significant spatial variations from 30 to 250 days. The longest SCD was found in the mountainous area in eastern Kazakhstan, reaching values between 200 and 250 days in 2005. The AASD increased from the south to the north and maintained latitudinal zonality. The MMSD in most areas ranged from 20 to 30 cm. The ASDW values ranged regularity of latitudinal zonality from 15 to 20 cm in the eastern region and were characterized by spatial The ASDW in the mountainous area often exceeded 20 cm.

Progresses on microwave remote sensing of land surface parameters

Highly accurate observations at various scales on the land surface are urgently needed for the studies of many areas,such as hydrology,meteorology,and agriculture.With the rapid development of remote sensing techniques,remote sensing has had the capacity of monitoring many factors of the Earth's land surface.Especially,the space-borne microwave remote sensing systems have been widely used in the quantitative monitoring of global snow,soil moisture,and vegetation parameters with their all-weather,all-time observation capabilities and their sensitivities to the characteristics of land surface factors.Based on the electromagnetic theories and microwave radiative transfer equations,researchers have achieved great successes in the microwave remote sensing studies for different sensors in recent years.This article has systematically reviewed the progresses on five research areas including microwave theoretical modeling,microwave inversion on soil moisture,snow,vegetation and land surface temperatures.Through the further enrichment of remote sensing datasets and the development of remote sensing theories and inversion techniques,remote sensing including microwave remote sensing will play a more important role in the studies and applications of the Earth systems.

Historical and real-time estimation of snow depth in Eurasia based on multiple passive microwave data

Current snow depth datasets demonstrate large discrepancies in the spatial pattern in Eurasia,and the lagging updates of datasets do not meet the operational requirements of the meteorological service department.This study developed a dynamic retrieval method for daily snow depth over Eurasia based on cross-sensor calibrated microwave brightness temperatures to enhance retrieval accuracy and meet the requirements of operational work.These brightness temperatures were detected by microwave radiometer imager carried on the FengYun 3(FY-3)satellite and the special sensor microwave imager/sounder carried on the USA Defense Meteorological Satellite Program series satellites,which use the fewest sensors to provide the longest data and consequently introduce minimal errors during inter-sensor calibration.Firstly,inter-sensor calibration was conducted amongst brightness temperatures collected by the three sensors.A spatiotemporal dynamic relationship between snow depth and microwave brightness temperature gradient was then established,overcoming the large uncertainties induced by varying snow characteristics.This relationship can be utilised in FY-3 satellite data for operational service to obtain real-time snow depth.The generated daily snow depth dataset from 1988 to 2021 presents similar spatial patterns of snow depth to those observed in situ.Against in situ snow depth,the overall bias and root mean square error are−2.04 and 6.49 cm,respectively,facilitating considerable improvements in accuracy compared with the Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer 2 snow depth product,which adopts the static algorithm.Further analysis shows an overall decreasing trend from 1988 to 2021 for annual and monthly mean snow depths,demonstrating a noticeable reduction since around 2000.The reduction in monthly mean snow depth started earlier in shallow snow months than in deep snow months.

Detecting surface freeze/thaw states in Northeast China with passive microwave data using an improved standard deviation method

Passive microwave remote sensing datasets are widely used to observe surface freeze/thaw(F/T)states.However,current algorithms are highly affected by snow cover and complex land cover types,compromising their performance.Therefore,this study proposes an improved algorithm for daytime detection of diurnal F/T states by using Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer 2 data.In the daytime F/T discrimination algorithm,a microwave spectral gradient index is applied to divide the surface into snow-covered and snow-free areas.In the snow-free area,the surface temperature index is optimised to improve the accuracy of the standard deviation method(SDM)in evaluating the accuracy of the F/T state.For the nighttime dataset,the microwave standard deviation index difference values between day and night are used to detect the F/T states based on the daytime results.The accuracy of the improved algorithm reaches 88.6%and 84.5%in the daytime and at nighttime,respectively.Compared with the SDM,the accuracy is improved by 10.2%in the daytime and 5.4%at nighttime.The results demonstrate that the proposed model is able to effectively distinguish the F/T states of snow-covered surfaces.Optimising the surface temperature index can significantly improve the accuracy of the SDM.The results reveal that the proposed surface F/T detection algorithm can be applied to regions with complex land cover types.

基于MODIS积雪覆盖度数据的青藏高原两套被动微波雪深产品降尺度对比研究

积雪深度(雪深)是流域水量平衡、融雪径流模拟等模型的重要输入参数,被动微波雪深遥感产品被广泛用于雪深监测。然而,由于山区积雪时空异质性强,这些空间分辨率较粗的雪深产品受到极大限制。本研究基于MODIS积雪覆盖度数据,根据经验融合规则以及积雪衰退曲线对“中国雪深长时间序列数据集”的两套雪深产品(由SMMR、SSMI和SSMI/S反演的称为Che_SSMI/S产品;由AMSR-2反演称为Che_AMSR2产品)进行空间降尺度,最终获得青藏高原500 m降尺度雪深数据(Che_SSMI/S_NSD和Che_AMSR2_NSD)。利用6景Landsat-8影像对两套降尺度雪深数据进行对比分析,结果发现两套降尺度数据与Landsat-8影像积雪空间分布吻合度均较高。与29个气象站点雪深数据相比,Che_AMSR2_NSD与实测雪深更为接近,相关系数(R)达到0.72,均方根误差(RMSE)为3.21 cm;而Che_SSMI/S_NSD精度较低(R=0.67,RMSE=4.44 cm),可能是由于采用不同传感器亮温数据的两套原始雪深产品精度不同所致。除此之外,实验表明被动微波雪深产品降尺度精度还受积雪深度、积雪期等因素的影响。当积雪深度小于10 cm且在积雪稳定期时,两套雪深产品降尺度精度均最高;当积雪深度大于30 cm且在积雪消融期时,两套雪深产品降尺度精度均最低。通过对比两套降尺度雪深产品,有助于全面地了解青藏高原雪深时空分布变化及其应用提供数据支持。

卫星反演积雪信息的研究进展

综合分析了积雪信息反演的主要遥感信息源和提取方法。在光学遥感方面,应用较广的主要是改进型甚高分辨率扫描辐射仪(AVHRR)资料和中分辨率成像光谱仪(MODIS)资料;提取积雪信息大多是根据积雪在可见光波段的高反射率和近红外波段的低反射率,并通过建立回归模型反演积雪面积和深度。由于传感器的改进,MODIS卫星资料在空间分辨率、积雪反演算法等方面明显优于AVHRR资料。光学仪器受云层和大气的影响很大,由于云和积雪在可见光和近红外波段上都具有高反射率。并且由于云层的遮挡,云下的地表信息不能被光学遥感仪器所接收到。微波遥感方面,被动微波遥感仪如微波辐射计成像仪(SSM/I)、高级微波扫描辐射计(AMSR-E)等可以全天候穿过云层进行监测,具有光学仪器所没有的优势,并通过提取地表的亮温差,建立雪深反演模型得到积雪深度。被动微波传感器存在分辨率低,无法监测浅雪区信息等问题。另外影响地表微波亮温的因素很多,这些都在一定程度上影响了反演结果的精确度。主动微波遥感仪如合成孔径雷达、微波散射计等利用积雪与其它地物的后向散射系数的不同来识别积雪,但也同样存在分辨率低等问题。最后探讨了卫星反演积雪信息中仍然存在的问题和进一步发展的方向。

基于被动微波遥感的青藏高原雪深反演及其结果评价

采用修正的张氏雪深反演算法 ,用SSM/I 37GHz和 19GHz水平极化亮温值计算了青藏高原及其毗邻地区的积雪深度 ,对其精度进行了评价 ,并对误差来源进行了分析。结果显示 ,此算法能够较好地反映研究区的雪深分布 ,但局部地区误差较大 ,总体上雪深被高估。其误差主要来源于冻土 ,深霜层 ,植被以及雪层中液态水含量 ,雪粒的形状和粒径的变化带来的影响。SSM/I数据较低的分辨率和研究区复杂的地形使反演的雪深与观测的雪深缺少可比性 。

被动微波遥感反演中国西部地区雪深、雪水当量算法初步研究(英文)

雪深、雪水当量是积雪研究中重要参数,其在流域水量平衡和融雪径流预报以及雪灾监测与评价中起着重要作用。Chang等(1987)以辐射传输理论和米氏散射为理论基础,假定积雪密度和颗粒大小为常数,利用实测雪深数据和SMMR的亮温数据,通过统计回归方法,建立了雪深与18GHz和37GHz水平极化的亮温梯度之间的关系,发展了SMMR半经验的反演雪深的算法。后在此基础上又发展了针对SSM/I的半经验反演雪深算法。2002年发射的装载于Aqua卫星上的AM-SR-E是新一代的被动微波辐射计,性能较以往星载被动微波辐射计有较大提高,采用了改进后的SSM/I的半经验算法作为其估算全球雪水当量的反演算法。将AMSR-E的雪水当量产品与气象台站观测的雪水当量进行比较,发现在新疆地区和青藏高原地区雪水当量的RMSE分别达到31.8mm和21mm。本研究旨在建立基于AMSR-E亮温数据,适用于中国西部地区的雪深和雪水当量反演算法。首先收集整理了2003年新疆地区的雪深、雪水当量数据和AMSR-E亮温数据,去除错误样本,利用统计回归的方法,建立了新疆的反演雪深、雪水当量的半经验算法,算法中加入积雪覆盖度参数,较以往的算法有所改进,与气象台站观测数据比较,结果也表明新疆地区建立的经验算法较AMSR-E的雪水当量算法有较大改进,RMSE为15.7mm。但青藏高原地区因海拔高,地形复杂,大部分地区积雪较浅,空间分布不均和冻土存在等诸多因素运用同样的方法建立反演算法,结果不甚理想,以后的研究将重点消除这些干扰因素。

东北地区MODIS和AMSR-E积雪产品验证及对比

通过2002-2008年6个积雪季节的Terra-Aqua/MODIS积雪产品(MOD10A2、MOD10C2)和Aqua/AMSR-E雪水当量产品,分析了东北地区积雪覆盖面积的变化特征,以研究区气象站点观测的积雪数据为真实值来验证两种产品积雪信息的精度,探讨了云覆盖、土地利用类型和雪深对积雪覆盖精度的影响.结果表明:云的存在对微波数据积雪识别的影响较小,在积雪量较多的12月至次年的2月随云量百分比的变化,MOD10A2积雪覆盖面积比例大体出现负变化.因此,在有云情况下AMSR-E数据反演积雪精度最好.对比草地、耕地、林地和居民地4种土地覆盖类型对监测积雪覆盖精度的影响,发现林地对其影响最大,在林区3种积雪产品的积雪识别精度分别为55.8%、81.2%、85.4%;雪深对AMSR-E积雪产品识别精度影响较小,总体精度为97.8%;积雪深度对MOD10A2积雪产品识别精度影响较大,总体精度为57.3%.MOD10A2、MOD10C2和AMSR-E 3种积雪产品的总体反演精度分别为69.3%、76.6%、76.3%.有必要开发适用于东北地区的积雪覆盖算法,提高估算精度,为能量平衡估算、气候模型、农业生产、土壤墒情监测服务.

被动微波遥感在青藏高原积雪业务监测中的初步应用

积雪范围、积雪深度和雪水当量等参数的遥感监测与反演对气候模式的建立以及积雪灾害的评估具有重要意义。被动微波遥感在这些参数的反演方面具有明显优势,但目前尚未应用到青藏高原地区的积雪遥感业务监测上来。2001年10月至2002年4月,利用SSM/I数据对青藏高原地区的积雪范围和积雪深度进行了实时监测,为西藏、青海遥感应用部门提供逐日的雪深分布图。对这次监测的总效果进行了分析和评价,并对发生在青海省内一次较大的降雪过程进行了遥感分析,结果表明:SSM/I反演的积雪范围变化趋势与MODIS结果总体上较为一致;SSM/I的雪深监测结果为当地遥感部门对大于10cm的雪深做出正确判断提供了重要信息,是对雪灾定位的重要信息源。

基于被动微波遥感反演雪深的时间序列分析我国积雪时空变化特征

利用1978-2005年逐日中国积雪深度数据集,分析了我国积雪空间分布特征和季节时空分布特征,并运用趋势线分析方法和均方根差模拟了积雪深度和积雪日数的变化趋势及异常空间变化特征.结果表明:青藏高原东南、青藏高原西部和南部、新疆北部和东北山区为我国积雪空间分布四大高值区.近28 a来,积雪深度和积雪日数呈增加趋势,20世纪80年代青藏高原明显增加和明显减少趋势并存,90年代整体明显增加,2000-2005年整体基本不变.青藏高原中东部、新疆北部以及东北山区为积雪深度异常变化敏感区,而青藏高原西部则为积雪日数异常变化敏感区.

青藏高原积雪深度和雪水当量的被动微波遥感反演

利用1993年1月份的SSM/I亮度温度数据反演了青藏高原的雪水当量,首先使用被动微波SSM/I数据19和37GHz的水平极化数据来反演雪深,根据积雪时间的函数来计算实时的雪密度,由雪的深度和密度计算出雪水当量.最后,利用SSM/I数据的19和37GHz的垂直极化亮度温度梯度对计算出的雪水当量进行回归分析,得到了利用SSM/I数据直接反演雪水当量的算法.

1993—2002年中国积雪水资源时空分布与变化特征

利用1993—2002年SSM/I被动微波逐日积雪深度反演结果, 研究了我国积雪水资源的分布与变化. 结果表明: 积雪储量近10 a来没有明显的减少或增加趋势, 但是存在年际间的波动; 我国冬季积雪储量主要分布在东北、北疆、青藏高原东部和其边缘地区, 以及华北地区; 东北、北疆和青藏高原地区为我国的稳定积雪地区; 青藏高原地区积雪储量小于东北地区, 但年积雪日数大于东北地区.近10 a最大积雪水资源量平均约为102 79 km3, 其中最大年份为1999/2000年度, 约为131 34 km3.

青藏高原积雪被动微波遥感资料与台站观测资料的对比分析

积雪资料的可靠程度在反映积雪变化、预估后期气候变化时非常重要,利用青藏高原74个气象台站资料与被动微波遥感资料进行对比分析.结果表明:两种积雪资料在高原南部边缘、高原东部唐古拉山与念青唐古拉山东部均表现为高值区,在柴达木盆地、高原腹地及沿雅鲁藏布江一线表现为一致的少雪区,在青海南部和藏东南地区差异较大.遥感资料的积雪深度和积雪日数变化敏感区与台站观测资料存在差异.在积雪的显著季节性特征及气候尺度上的年际变化特征方面,遥感资料与台站资料具有很好的一致性,但遥感资料在刻画积雪季节内波动特征方面欠佳,且年平均积雪深度和积雪日数遥感数据偏大.对AMSR-E逐日积雪资料进行评价发现,高原腹地总精度大于高原边缘地区,海拔3 000m以下的反演精度较高,雪深在9～10cm时的反演精度较高.

牧区积雪光学与微波遥感研究进展

在总结国内外积雪监测常用卫星资料甚高分辨率扫描辐射仪(AVHRR)、多光谱扫描仪(MSS)、专题绘图仪(TM)、中分辨率成像光谱仪(MODIS)、多通道微波辐射计(SMMR)、微波成像专用传感器(SSM/I)、改进型微波辐射扫描仪(AMSR/AMSR-E)、合成孔径雷达(SAR)和FY系列传感器优缺点的基础上,系统研究了牧区积雪可见光遥感研究进展以及微波积雪深度反演、积雪分类决策树遥感研究进展,提出了积雪监测中存在的一些问题及未来发展趋势和研究重点,为进一步做好牧区积雪监测提供科学依据。

积雪被动微波遥感研究进展

积雪是冰冻圈中最活跃的要素之一,被动微波遥感具有高时间分辨率且能够迅速覆盖全球,在积雪时空变化监测中作用突出.总结分析了积雪被动微波遥感的主要模型,并对其方法、特点和适用性进行了较详细评述,重点介绍了NASA算法在雪深和雪水当量反演中的应用、反演结果的不确定性以及对它的改进.讨论新兴的积雪数据同化方法,介绍了同化被动微波观测以改进雪深和雪水当量反演精度的研究案例.评述了我国积雪被动微波遥感的进展,并且对未来可能的研究方向做出展望.