Linking Surface Temperature Based Approaches for Estimating Soil Heat Flux with Error Propagation

Soil heat flux is an inseparable component of the surface energy balance. Accurate estimation of regional soil heat flux is valuable to studies of meteorology and hydrology. Conventional measurement of using soil heat flux plates at the site scale is impractical to estimate large-scale flux. Other approaches generally require soil temperature to?be measured in at least two soil layers, which is also difficult to implement at the regional scale. In the last decade, single-layer based approaches were developed to fulfill the regional requirement. This study used a simple but more general approach for estimating soil heat flux solely with surface temperature. The generalized approach can be conditionally linked to two existing single-layer based approaches but has fewer restrictions or assumptions. Error analysis revealed that measurement error in surface temperature would have limited effects on soil heat flux estimated from the new approach. Model simulations showed that soil heat flux estimated from the approach agreed with those simulated from the heat transfer equation. Furthermore, case examinations at two sites with contrasting climate regimes demonstrated that the generalized approach had better performance than the existing single-layer approaches. It achieved the highest correlation of determination and the lowest mean, standard deviation, and root mean squared error of the differences between the estimates and the field measures at either site. The generalized approach can estimate soil heat flux at a depth but it requires only surface temperature data as input, which is an advantage to remote sensing applications.

Effects of the Soil Heat Flux Estimates on Surface Energy Balance Closure over a Semi-Arid Grassland

Soil heat flux is important for surface energy balance （SEB）, and inaccurate estimation of soil heat flux often leads to surface energy imbalance. In this paper, by using observations of surface radiation fluxes and soil temperature gradients at a semi-arid grassland in Xilingguole, Inner Mongolia, China from June to September 2008, the characters of the SEB for the semi-arid grassland were analyzed. Firstly, monthly averaged diurnal variations of SEB components were revealed. A 30-min forward phase displacement of soil heat flux （G） observed by a fluxplate at the depth of 5-em below the soil surface was conducted and its effect on the SEB was studied. Secondly, the surface soil heat flux （Gs） was computed by using harmonic analysis and the effect of the soil heat storage between the surface and the fluxplate on the SEB was examined. The results show that with the 30-min forward phase displacement of observed G, the slope of the ordinary linear regression （OLR） of turbulent fluxes （H＋LE） against available energy （Rn G） increased from 0.835 to 0.842, i.e., the closure ratio of SEB increased by 0.7%, yet energy imclosure of 15.8% still existed in the SEB. When Gs, instead of G was used in the SEB equation, the slope of corresponding OLR of （H＋LE） against （Rn-Gs） reached 0.979, thereby the imelosure ratio of SEB was reduced to only 2.1%.

An improved algorithm to estimate the surface soil heat flux over a heterogeneous surface: A case study in the Heihe River Basin

Surface soil heat flux(G0) is an indispensable component of the surface energy balance and plays an important role in the estimation of surface evapotranspiration(ET). This study calculated G0 in the Heihe River Basin based on the thermal diffusion equation, using the observed soil temperature and moisture profiles, with the aim to analyze the spatial-temporal variations of G0 over the heterogeneous area(with alpine grassland, farmland, and forest). The soil ice content was estimated by the difference in liquid soil water content before and after the melting of the frozen soil and its impact on the calculation of G0 was further analyzed. The results show that:(1) the diurnal variation of G0 is obvious under different underlying surfaces in the Heihe River Basin, and the time when the daily maximum value of G0 occurs is a few minutes to several hours earlier than that of the net radiation flux, which is related to the soil texture, soil moisture, soil thermal properties, and the vegetation coverage;(2) the net radiation flux varies with season and reaches the maximum in summer and the minimum in winter, whereas G0 reaches the maximum in spring rather than in summer, because more vegetation in summer hinders energy transfer into the soil;(3) the proportions of G0 to the net radiation flux are different with seasons and surface types, and the mean values in January are 25.6% at the Arou site, 22.9% at the Yingke site and 4.3% at the Guantan site, whereas the values in July are 2.3%, 1.6% and 0.3%, respectively; and(4) G0 increases when the soil ice content is included in thermal diffusion equation, which improves the surface energy balance closure by 4.3%.

A temperature prediction-correction method for estimating surface soil heat flux from soil temperature and moisture data

Surface soil heat flux is a component of surface energy budget and its estimation is needed in land-atmosphere interaction studies. This paper develops a new simple method to estimate soil heat flux from soil temperature and moisture observations. It give

Numerical Study of Impacts of Soil Moisture on the Diurnal and Seasonal Cycles of Sensible/Latent Heat Fluxes over Semi-arid Region

The semi-arid regions, as climatic and ecosystem transitional zones, are the most vulnerable to global environmental change. Earlier researches indicate that the semi-arid regions are characterized by strong landatmosphere coupling in which soil moisture is the crucial variable in land surface processes. In this paper, we investigate the sensitivity of the sensible/latent heat fluxes to soil moisture during the growing season based on the enhanced observations at Tongyu in the Jilin province of China, a reference site of international Coordinated Energy and Water Cycle Observations Project （CEOP） in the semi-arid regions, by using a sophisticated land surface model （NCAR_CLM3.0）. Comparisons between the observed and simulated sensible/latent heat fluxes indicate that the soil moisture has obvious effects on the sensible/latent heat fluxes in terms of diurnal cycle and seasonal evolution. Better representation of the soil moisture could improve the model performance to a large degree. Therefore, for the purpose of simulating the land-atmosphere interaction and predicting the climate and water resource changes in semi-arid regions, it is necessary to enhance the description of the soil moisture distribution both in the way of observation and its treatment in land surface models.

The analysis of heat and water fluxes in frozen silty soil

In this paper, based on the basic equations of water flow and heat transfer, the hydrothermal coupling model is established.The numerical model was realized in COMSOL Multiphysics software, and simulation results are compared with the experimental results of Watanabe and Wake(2008) to verify the effectiveness of the model. Through the calculation, we can obtain the dynamic changes of heat and water fluxes, thermal and hydrological properties, matric potential and temperature gradient in unsaturated freezing soil; and these variables are unmeasurable in practice.

Estimation of ground heat flux and its impact on the surface energy budget for a semi-arid grassland

Three approaches, i.e., the harmonic analysis （HA） technique, the thermal diffusion equation and correction （TDEC） method, and the calorimetric method used to estimate ground heat flux, are evaluated by using observations from the Semi-Arid Climate and Environment Observatory of Lanzhou University （SACOL） in July, 2008. The calorimetric method, which involves soil heat flux measurement with an HFP01SC self-calibrating heat flux plate buried at a depth of 5 cm and heat storage in the soil between the plate and the surface, is here called the ITHP approach. The results show good linear relationships between the soil heat fluxes measured with the HFP01SC heat flux plate and those calculated with the HA technique and the TDEC method, respectively, at a depth of 5 cm. The soil heat fluxes calculated with the latter two methods well follow the phase measured with the HFP01SC heat flux plate. The magnitudes of the soil heat flux calculated with the HA technique and the TDEC method are close to each other, and they are about 2 percent and 6 percent larger than the measured soil heat flux, respectively, which mainly occur during the nighttime. Moreover, the ground heat fluxes calculated with the TDEC method and the HA technique are highly correlated with each other （R2= 0.97）, and their difference is only about 1 percent. The TDEC-calculated ground heat flux also has a good linear relationship with the ITttP-calculated ground heat flux （R2 = 0.99）, but their difference is larger （about 9 percent）. Furthermore, compared to the HFP01SC direct measurements at a depth of 5 cm, the ground heat flux calculated with the HA technique, the TDEC method, and the ITHP approach can improve the surface energy budget closure by about 6 percent, 7 percent, and 6 percent at SACOL site, respectively. Therefore, the contribution of ground heat flux to the surface energy budget is very important for the semi-arid grassland over the Loess Plateau in China. Using turbulent heat fluxes with common corrections, soil heat storage between the surface and the heat flux plate can improve the surface energy budget closure by about 6 to 7 percent, resulting in a closure of 82 to 83 percent at the SACOL site.

Application of the Reciprocal Analysis for Sensible and Latent Heat Fluxes with Evapotranspiration at a Humid Region

Evapotranspiration acts an important role in hydrologic cycle and water resources planning. But the estimation issue still remains until nowadays. This research attempts to make clear this problem by the following way. In a humid region, by applying the Bowen ratio concept and optimum procedure on the soil surface, sensible and latent heat fluxes are estimated using net radiation (Rn) and heat flux into the ground (G). The method uses air temperature and humidity at a single height by reciprocally determining the soil surface temperature (Ts) and the relative humidity (rehs). This feature can be remarkably extended to the utilization. The validity of the method is confirmed by comparing of observed and estimated latent (lE) and sensible heat flux (H) using the eddy covariance method. The hourly change of the lE, H, Ts and rehs on the soil surface, yearly change of lE and H and relationship of estimated lE and H versus observed are clarified. Furthermore, monthly evapotranspiration is estimated from the lE. The research was conducted using hourly data of FLUXNET at a site of Japan, three sites of the United States and two sites of Europe in humid regions having over 1000 mm of annual precipitation.

Thermal conductivity of reinforced soils: A literature review

This paper aims a review of the literature related to soil reinforcements to achieve lower soil thermal conductivity （2）. The use of various natural and synthetic fibers, polymers, geosynthetics, agricultural waste/materials, and nanoclays is discussed and existing prediction models that have been thought to affect low thermal conductivity are presented.

川中丘陵区农田生态系统太阳辐射及土壤热通量数据集(2005-2021年)

太阳辐射是地表生态系统的主要能量来源,是生态系统维持本身正常运转和发展的原始动力;地表层土壤热通量是地表能量平衡的重要参数之一。四川盐亭农田生态系统国家野外科学观测研究站(简称盐亭站)是国家布局在亚热带四川盆地农业生态区的唯一农田生态系统监测野外站。该区域具有优越的光、热、水资源,非地带性土壤紫色土广泛分布,形成亚热带湿润季风气候与非地带性紫色土的最佳农业组合,农耕活跃,是四川盆地农业的主体区域。本研究基于盐亭站综合气象观测场Vaisala(芬兰)自动气象观测系统,经过数据采集、处理、数据质量控制与评估,集成2005-2021年紫色土典型农田生态系统太阳辐射和土壤热通量数据集,太阳辐射监测包括总辐射、反射辐射、紫外辐射、净辐射和光合有效辐射。数据集包含5个EXCEL文件,有各类辐射的时值、日值和月值观测及统计数据,数据量32.7 MB。本数据集可为生态系统生产能力评估、应对气候变化等方面的研究提供数据支持。

青藏高原土壤热通量估算及时空分布特征

土壤热通量(Soil heat flux,G)是影响青藏高原地表能量平衡的关键因素,对其进行估算以及时空分布特征分析,可为该区地表能量平衡研究提供参考依据。本文基于2003~2018年中分辨率成像光谱仪(Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer,MODIS)数据、中国区域地面气象要素驱动数据集以及中国西部1 km全天候地表温度数据集,利用土地表面能量平衡算法(Surface Energy Balance Algorithm for Land,SEBAL)模型结合青藏高原原位观测数据G0对模型的适用性和计算精度进行评估,发现该模型对青藏高原的土壤热通量G模拟精度较高。在此基础上利用遥感数据重构了该地区2003~2018年的土壤热通量数据,并分析了G值的时空分布特征。结果表明:(1)多年G均值整体呈波动下降趋势,最大谷值出现在2011年,最大峰值出现在2016年;各季节中,除冬季外,其余季节G均值呈波动下降趋势,且G均值值域高低依次呈现:夏季>春季>秋季>冬季,G均值波动变化大小顺序与之相一致。(2)G均值分布特征具有明显的空间异质性,总体呈现出北部柴达木盆地及其周边地区最高,西南阿里等地区较高,其余大部分地区普遍较低的空间分布特征;各季节G均值的空间分布特征基本与总体空间分布特征一致。(3)中部及东南地区G均值主要呈增加趋势,北部、西部和西南地区G均值主要呈减少趋势;各季节中,G均值有增加趋势的地区面积占比冬季最多,夏季最少,有减少趋势的地区面积占比夏季最多,冬季最少。本研究结果证明了SEBAL模型对反演青藏高原土壤热通量G的适用性,且丰富了青藏高原地表能量平衡的研究内容。

青海湖流域不同下垫面类型对地表温度的生物物理影响

本研究选取青海湖流域亚高山灌丛和温性草原两个不同土地覆盖类型的站点,利用湍流通量数据和自动气象站数据对比生长季和非生长季两个站点的微气象要素和地表能量平衡收支,评估土地利用/土地覆盖变化(Land Use/Land Cover Changes,LULCC)对地表温度的生物物理影响。亚高山灌丛相比温性草原具有更低的地表温度、气温和土壤温度,在生长季两个站点的地表温度、气温和土壤温度的差异更为明显,而非生长季相对湿度的差异更为明显。根据直接分解温度理论(Direct Decomposed Temperature Metric,DTM),分析不同下垫面对地表温度的生物物理影响。结果表明:白天灌丛相比草原的冷却作用主要贡献因素是短波辐射、地表土壤热通量和感热通量项,其中短波辐射在灌丛的冷却中起到正反馈作用,而后两者起到负反馈作用。夜间灌丛的冷却作用主要贡献因素是地表土壤热通量项。在相同气候和天气背景下,不同下垫面确实会对地表温度有明显的生物物理反馈作用。

A Variational Method for Estimating Near-Surface Soil Moisture and Surface Heat Fluxes

A variational data assimilation method is proposed to estimate the near-surface soil moisture and surface sensible and latent heat fluxes. The method merges the five parts into a cost function, i.e., the differences of wind, potential temperature, and specific humidity gradient between observations and those computed by the profile method, the difference of latent heat fluxes calculated using the ECMWF land surface evaporation scheme and the profile method, and a weak constraint for surface energy balance. By using an optimal algorithm, the best solutions are found. The method is tested with the data collected at Feixi Station （31.41^oN, 117.08^oE） supported by the China Heavy Rain Experiment and Study （HeRES） during 7-30 June 2001. The results show that estimated near-surface soil moistures can quickly respond to rainfall, and their temporal variation is consistent with that of measurements of average soil moisture over 15-cm top depth with a maximum error less than 0.03 m^3 m^-3. The surface heat fluxes calculated by this method are consistent with those by the Bowen ratio method, but at the same time it can overcome the instability problem occurring in the Bowen ratio method when the latter is about -1. Meanwhile, the variational method is more accurate than the profile method in terms of satisfying the surface energy balance. The sensitivity tests also show that the variational method is the most stable one among the three methods.

半干旱草地地表土壤热通量的计算及其对能量平衡的影响

利用2008年7月兰州大学半干旱气候与环境观测(SACOL)站的观测资料,对比分析了地表土壤热通量的三种计算方法,即谐波法、温度预报校正法(TDEC法)以及结合自校正热通量板(HFP01SC)测量的温度积分法(ITHP法);进而分析了三种不同方法的计算结果对地表能量平衡的影响。比较5cm深度处谐波法和TDEC法的计算结果与HFP01SC的实测结果,三者的相位基本一致,相互之间均具有很好的线性关系;谐波法与TDEC法的计算值较为接近,但分别比HFP01SC的实测值偏大了2%和6%(主要发生在夜间)。对于地表的土壤热通量(G0),谐波法与TDEC法两者的计算结果仅偏差约1%;TDEC法与ITHP法的计算结果之间也具有很好的线性关系(R2=0.99),但偏差达到9%左右。相对于HFP01SC的实测结果,由谐波法和TDEC法计算的G0可将SACOL站的地表能量闭合率分别提高6%和7%左右;利用温度积分法将HFP01SC的实测结果校正到地表后,地表能量闭合率也提高了约6%。因此,在对涡动相关通量做了常规订正的情况下,当充分考虑了土壤热存储后,SACOL站的地表能量闭合率可提高6%～7%,达到82%～83%左右。

不同土壤类型的热通量变化特征

利用2004—2007年中国科学院中国生态系统研究网络(CERN)生态站实测土壤热通量、辐射等资料,分析了不同土壤类型表层热通量的日变化和季节变化,以及不同土壤类型的热通量与总辐射、净辐射的关系。结果表明,由于导热率越大,热量传输就越快;热容量越小,热量传输也越快,造成土壤热通量的日较差和年较差较大,所以黄绵土和紫色土的表层热通量日较差最大(220～280 W.m-2),高寒草甸土和水稻土最小(55W.m-2);季节变化中土壤表层热通量的年较差变化范围在12～28W.m-2之间,灰漠土最大,为28W.m-2,热通量年较差从大到小依次为灰漠土、黄绵土、盐碱潮土、红壤土、紫色土、沼泽土、水稻土和高寒潮土,高寒潮土最小,为12W.m-2。不同土壤类型的热通量与总辐射、净辐射呈正相关关系,但不同土壤类型的土壤热通量在12:00(地方时)所占净辐射的比例各不相同,高寒草甸土最小,约为8%;黄绵土最大,为38%,多数土壤的热通量占净辐射的比例在15%～20%之间,这充分表明不同土壤类型表层热通量的传输存在很大差异。

土壤热扩散率及其温度、热通量计算方法的比较研究

本文利用绿洲系统能量与水分循环过程观测试验的2005年6月11日至15日在甘肃金塔绿洲中部观测的土壤温度、湿度和通量资料,在分析了观测期间土壤温度、湿度和通量特征的基础上,采用振幅法、相位法、谐波法和热传导对流法计算了5～20cm土壤层的土壤热扩散率.在此基础上,以深度为5cm的土壤层为上边界条件,计算了10cm、20cm深度的土壤温度和10cm深度的热通量.结果表明:谐波法能很好地计算土壤温度,10cm和20cm深度的计算值相对观测值的标准差分别为:0.21℃和0.18℃;热传导对流法计算的土壤温度好于振幅法和相位法,但由于忽略了土壤水分通量密度的日变化,该方法用于土壤含水量有明显日变化的浅层土壤时,会出现计算误差.谐波法的计算土壤热通量与实测值最为接近,计算值与实测值的相关系数达到0.868.

青藏高原北部五道梁地表热量平衡方程中各分量特征

利用青藏高原北部五道梁地区实测的太阳辐射及气象资料,计算分析了高原北部地面热量平衡方程中各分量特征,定义了一个无量纲参量土壤热平衡系数k。结果显示:五道梁地区地表净辐射及地面加热场强度表现为夏季大,冬季小,地表净辐射累年平均通量为65.5 W/m2;土壤热通量自1997年来有增大的趋势;土壤热平衡系数有增大的趋势,平均值为1.17;感热及潜热是地面热平衡方程中的大项,其中感热居首位,潜热居其次;暖季感热、潜热以相反的趋势变化,Bowen比β值有下降的趋势。

用土壤温度估算表层土壤导温率与热通量的研究

对比研究了6种用土壤温度计算表层土壤导温率的方法结果表明,振幅法、相位法、反正切法、对数法虽需较少观测值,计算简单,但结果却不太稳定;谐波法计算过程虽较复杂,但导温率的估算值较稳定,是最可靠的方法之一。利用计算的土壤导温率估算近地表土壤热通量,结果与由温度积分法决定的土壤热通量值非常一致。

落叶松人工林土壤热传导季节变化及其与环境因子的关系

以2003-2005年落叶松人工林土壤热状况的实际监测数据为基础，研究了其土壤热传导特性及其与环境因子的关系.结果表明：落叶松人工林不同年份、不同地点土壤热通量的季节变化十分明显，4—8月为正值，9月至次年3月的绝大部分时间为负值，其年收支基本处于平衡状态.土壤热通量和土壤热导率（k）受净辐射影响显著，并存在时间延迟效应，冬季为4～5 h，夏季为2～3 h.基于实测的土壤热通量和土壤温度差计算得到的k值早春季节显著高于其他季节（P〈0.05），而其他月份不存在显著差异（P〉0.05）.使用我国大多数气象观测站积累的土壤温差数据和 k值进行土壤热通量季节变化估计时，早春季节（3—5月）可能会产生较大的误差.

黑土区耕作措施对春季耕层温度的影响

本文通过长期定位试验,分析了免耕、少耕和旋松三种耕作措施下耕层黑土土壤容积热容量、土壤热通量、净辐射的变化,进而阐明了耕作措施对耕层土壤温度日变化的影响。研究表明:各处理0cm和5cm处土壤温度变化与净辐射通量变化存在极显著相关关系。5cm处土壤热通量日变化各处理均表现为"S"型波动曲线,日变化相对较大,10cm处相对较小。免耕秸秆覆盖日净辐射平均值为0.58MJ/m2,比少耕和旋松小0.04MJ/m2,受净辐射、容积热容量和5cm处热通量影响,0cm和5cm处土壤温度日变化较大,且有波动现象;受深层较低地温、容积热容量和10cm处热通量影响,10cm和15cm处土壤温度变化较小,且较平稳。所有耕作措施土壤温度随深度的增加出现滞后现象。免耕秸秆覆盖措施各耕层相对于其他处理地温均较低,影响春季地温的升高。