Trade-offs between carbon sequestration, soil retention and water yield in the Guanzhong- Tianshui Economic Region of China

Natural ecosystems provide human society with very important products and services. With the rapid increase in population and the over-exploitation of natural resources, humans are continually enhancing the production of some services at the expense of others. This paper estimates changes in ecosystem services, and the relationship between these services in the Guanzhong-Tianshui Economic Region of China. These ecosystem changes are of great significance to the sustainable development of this economic region. The concept of production possibility frontier （PPF） is applied to evaluate the trade-offs and synergy between carbon sequestration, water yield and soil retention. Three land use strategy scenarios - planning, exploitation and protection - are applied to evaluate potential changes in ecosystem services. This study reveals noticeable trade-offs between carbon sequestration, soil retention and water yield, with synergy between carbon sequestration and soil retention. There are synergies between carbon sequestration, water yield and soil retention in the three scenarios. The protection scenario is the most favourable land use strategy for regulating ecosystem service capacity. This scenario results in the highest carbon sequestration, water yield and soil retention. The results could have implications for natural capital and ecosystem services planning, management and land use decision-making.

Modeling Soil Water Retention Curve with a Fractal Method

Many empirical models have been developed to describe the soil water retention curve (SWRC). In this study, a fractal model for SWRC was derived with a specially constructed Menger sponge to describe the fractal scaling behavior of soil; relationships were established among the fractal dimension of SWRC, the fractal dimension of soil mass, and soil texture; and the model was used to estimate SWRC with the estimated results being compared to experimental data for verification. The derived fractal model was in a power-law form, similar to the Brooks-Corey and Campbell empirical functions. Experimental data of particle size distribution (PSD), texture, and soil water retention for 10 soils collected at different places in China were used to estimate the fractal dimension of SWRC and the mass fractal dimension. The fractal dimension of SWRC and the mass fractal dimension were linearly related. Also, both of the fractal dimensions were dependent on soil texture, i.e., clay and sand contents. Expressions were proposed to quantify the relationships. Based on the relationships, four methods were used to determine the fractal dimension of SWRC and the model was applied to estimate soil water content at a wide range of tension values. The estimated results compared well with the measured data having relative errors less than 10% for over 60% of the measurements. Thus, this model, estimating the fractal dimension using soil textural data, offered an alternative for predicting SWRC.

Effect of vegetation on soil water retention and storage in a semi-arid alpine forest catchment

The runoff generated from mountainous regions is recognized as the main water source for inland river basins in arid environments. Thus, the mechanisms by which catchments retain water in soils are to be understood. The water storage capacity of soil depends on its depth and capacity to retain water under gravita- tional drainage and evapotranspiration. The latter can be studied through soil water retention curve （SWRC）, which is closely related to soil properties such as texture, bulk density, porosity, soil organic carbon conteMt, and so on. The present study represented SWRCs using HYDRUS-1D. In the present study, we measured pl^ysical and hydraulic properties of soil samples collected from Sabina przewalskii forest （south-facing slope with highest solar radiation）, shrubs （west-facing slope with medium radiation）, and Picea crassifolia forest （north-facing slope with lowest radiation）, and analyzed the differences in soil water storage capacity of these soil samples. Soil water content of those three vegetation covers were also measured to validate the soil water storage capacity and to analyze the relationship between soil organic matter content and soil water content. Statistical analysis showed that different vegetation covers could lead to different soil bulk densities and differences in soil water retention on the three slope aspects. Sand content, porosity, and organic carbon content of the P. crassifolia forest were rela- tively greater compared with those of the S. przewalskii forest and shrubs. However, silt content and soil bulk density were relatively smaller than those in the S. przewalskii forest and shrubs. In addition, there was a sig- nificant linear positive relationship between averaged soil water content and soil organic matter content （P〈0.0001）. However, this relationship is not significant in the P. crassifolia forest. As depicted in the SWRCs, the water storage capacity of the soil was 39.14% and 37.38% higher in the P. crassifolia forest than in the S. przewalskii forest and shrubs, respectively, at a similar soil depth.

Estimation of the van Genuchten Soil Water Retention Properties from Soil Textural Data

The van Genuchten (vG) function is often used to describe the soil water retention curve (SWRC) of unsaturated soils and fractured rock. The objective of this study was to develop a method to determine the vG model parameter m from the fractal dimension. We compared two approaches previously proposed by van Genuchten and Lenhard et al. for estimating m from the pore size distribution index of the Brooks and Corey (BC) model. In both approaches we used a relationship between the pore size distribution index of the BC model and the fractal dimension of the SWRC. A dataset containing 75 samples from the UNSODA unsaturated soil hydraulic database was used to evaluate the two approaches. The statistical parameters showed that the approach by Lenhard et al. provided better estimates of the parameter m. Another dataset containing 72 samples from the literature was used to validate Lenhard's approach in which the SWRC fractal dimension was estimated from the clay content. The estimated SWRC of the second dataset was compared with those obtained with the Rosetta model using sand, silt, and clay contents. Root mean square error values of the proposed fractal approach and Rosetta were 0.081 and 0.136, respectively, indicating that the proposed fractal approach performed better than the Rosetta model.

Correlation Between Soil Water Retention Capability and Soil Salt Content

The soil moisture retention capability of Chao soil and coastal saline Chao soil in Shandong and Zhejiang provinces were measured by pressure membrane method. The main factors influencing soil moisture retention capability were studied by the methods of correlation and path analyses. The results indicated that < 0.02mm physical clay and soil salt content were the main factors influencing soil moisture retention capability. At soil suction of 30-50 kpa, the soil salt content would be the dominant factor.

Applicability of Fractal Models in Estimating Soil Water Retention Characteristics from Particle-Size Distribution Data

Soil water retention characteristics are the key information required in hydrological modeling. Frac-tal models provide a practical alternative for indirectly estimating soil water retention characteristics fromparticle-size distribution data. Predictive capabilities of three fractal models, i.e, Tyler-Wheatcraft model,Rieu-Sposito model, and Brooks-Corey model, were fully evaluated in this work using experimental datafrom an international database and literature. Particle-size distribution data were firstly interpolated into20 classes using a van Genuchten-type equation. Fractal dimensions of the tortuous pore wall and the poresurface were then calculated from the detailed particle-size distribution and incorporated as a parameter infractal water retention models. Comparisons between measured and model-estimated water retention cha-racteristics indicated that these three models were applicable to relatively different soil textures and pressurehead ranges. Tyler-Wheatcraft and Brooks-Corey models led to reasonable agreements for both coarse- andmedium-textured soils, while the latter showed applicability to a broader texture range. In contrast, Rieu-Sposito model was more suitable for fine-textured soils. Fractal models produced a better estimation of watercontents at low pressure heads than at high pressure heads.

Influence of soil density on gas permeability and water retention in soils amended with in-house produced biochar

Biochar has been used as an environment-friendly enhancer to improve the hydraulic properties(e.g.suction and water retention)of soil.However,variations in densities alter the properties of the soil ebiochar mix.Such density variations are observed in agriculture(loosely compacted)and engineering(densely compacted)applications.The influence of biochar amendment on gas permeability of soil has been barely investigated,especially for soil with different densities.The major objective of this study is to investigate the water retention capacity,and gas permeability of biochar-amended soil(BAS)with different biochar contents under varying degree of compaction(DOC)conditions.In-house produced novel biochar was mixed with the soil at different amendment rates(i.e.biochar contents of 0%,5%and 10%).All BAS samples were compacted at three DOCs(65%,80%and 95%)in polyvinyl chloride(PVC)tubes.Each soil column was subjected to dryingewetting cycles,during which soil suction,water content,and gas permeability were measured.A simplified theoretical framework for estimating the void ratio of BAS was proposed.The experimental results reveal that the addition of biochar significantly decreased gas permeability kg as compared with that of bare soil(BS).However,the addition of 5%biochar is found to be optimum in decreasing kg with an increase of DOC(i.e.k_(g,65%)>k_(g,80%)>k_(g,95%))at a relatively low suction range(<200 kPa)because both biochar and compaction treatment reduce the connected pores.

Determination of strain-dependent soil water retention characteristics from gradation curve

The importance of soil water retention characteristics in modelling the hydro-mechanical response of unsaturated soils has been well recognised by many investigators in recent years.Determination of strain-dependent soil water retention curve(SWRC)is likely to be extraordinarily difficult.The first two authors have recently shown that SWRC can be computed from the gradation curve and the calculation result is consistent with the experimental results obtained from pressure plate tests.In this paper,based on a hypothesis related to change in the pore size distribution(POSD)due to volumetric strain of soil skeleton,a method to compute strain-dependent SWRC is presented.It is found that at initial degrees of saturation higher than 0.8,the influence of volumetric strain may be marginal whilst at initial degrees of saturation lower than 0.8,its influence is likely to be substantial.In all cases,the gradation curve of the soil affects the SWRC.

Topographic differentiations of biological soil crusts and hydraulic properties in fixed sand dunes, Tengger Desert

Biological soil crusts （BSCs） play an important role in surface soil hydrology. Soils dominated with moss BSCs may have higher infiltration rates than those dominated with cyanobacteria or algal BSCs. However, it is unnown whether improved infiltration in moss BSCs is accompanied by an increase in soil hydraulic conductivity or water retention capacity. We investigated this question in the Tengger Desert, where a 43-year-old revegetation program has promoted the formation of two distinct types of BSCs along topographic positions, i.e. the moss-dominated BSCs on the interdune land and windward slopes of the fixed sand dunes, and the al- gal-dominated BSCs on the crest and leeward slopes. Soil water retention capacity and hydraulic conductivity were measured using an indoor evaporation method and a field infiltration method. And the results were fitted to the van Genuchten-Mualem model. Unsaturated hydraulic conductivities under greater water pressure （〈-0.01 MPa） and water retention capacities in the entire pressure head range were higher for both crust types than for bare sand. However, saturated and unsaturated hydraulic conductivities in the near-saturation range （〉-0.01 MPa） showed decreasing trends from bare sand to moss crusts and to algal crusts. Our data suggested that topographic differentiation of BSCs significantly affected not only soil water retention and hydraulic conductivities, but also the overall hydrology of the fixed sand dunes at a landscape scale, as seen in the reduction and spatial variability in deep soil water storage.

Function of Soils in Regulating Rainwater in Southern China: Impacts of Land Uses and Soils

One of the most important functions of soils is to regulate rainwater and mitigate flooding and associated damages; this function can be estimated by the rainwater regulation ratio （η）, i.e., percent of regulated rainwater. Fifteen experimental plots were set up on the hills in Yingtan of Jiangxi Province, southern China. These plots were under three land use patterns, cultivated cropland, noncultivated land, and orchard interplanted with cash crops. With aid of an artificial rainfall simulator and Guelph method, rainfall, runoff, soil infiltration, and so on were measured in situ. Results showed that the orchard interplanted with cash crops was more effective in regulating rainwater than the other two land use patterns. When the maximum infiltration intensity was three times higher than the observed mean,η was higher than 70% for all plots. 77 was related to land use, slope gradient, and soil properties such as soil infiltration, organic carbon, bulk density, and texture. There is still more room to improve capacity of rainwater drainage （underground percolation） than that of rainwater storage in soils. Therefore, enhancing soil permeability is vital to improve the rainwater regulation efficiency in soils.

Effect of Afforestation on Soil Properties and Mycorrhizal Formation

A study was conducted on Cambisols in Northern Germany to analyze the effect of fast growing trees （Salix and Populus spp.） used in agroforestry on soil chemical and physical properties and also on endo- and ectomycorrhizal colonization of the fine roots. Representative plots of three trials, Giilzow （GUL）, Vipperow （VIP） and Rostock （ROS）, were used to measure the topsoil inventories at the very beginning and after six （GUL）, seven （VIP） and ten （ROS） years of afforestation with fast growing trees. The effect on soil organic carbon, plant available nutrients, reaction, bulk density, porosity and water conditions was analyzed, Arable soils without tree coppice were used as controls. Additionally, the endoand ectomycorrhizal colonization of two Salix and two Populus clones were investigated at one site （GUL） in 2002. The amounts of organic carbon in the topsoil increased significantly （P 〈 0.01） presumably induced by leaf and root litter and also by the lack of tillage. The soil bulk density significantly decreased and the porosity of the soil increased significantly （both P 〈 0.01）. The proportion of medium pores in the soil also rose significantly （P 〈 0.05 and 0.01）. Generally, afforestation of arable soils improved soil water retention. Ectomycorrhizas dominated the mycorrhizal formation of the Salix and Populus clones, with the accumulation of organic matter in the topsoil suspected of supporting the ectomycorrhizal formation. Thus, agroforestry with Salix and Populus spp. conspicuously affected chemical and additionally physical properties of the top layer of Cambisols within a period of six years.

Variation of soil organic carbon and bulk density during afforestation regulates soil hydraulic properties

Grain to Green program on arable land has been conducted for decades in semi-arid regions of North China.However,it remains uncertain how afforestation practices affect soil hydraulic properties(SHP).Two afforestation types,i.e.shrubland(SL)and woodland(WL),and the adjacent cropland(CL)were investigated to determine afforestation effects on SHP in this area.Disturbed and undisturbed soil cores were collected in three experimental sites.Soil field capacity(FC),wilting point(WP),and available water capacity(AWC)increased in SL compared to the CL.Soil saturated water content,however,decreased significantly in both SL and WL.Correlation and redundancy analysis identified that bulk density(BD)and soil organic carbon(SOC)were the main factors regulating SHP across different land uses.Lower saturated water contents in afforestation sites were likely driven by the higher BD,compared to the adjacent cropland.FC,WP,and AWC were positively correlated to SOC content.While afforestation may not increase the saturated water content of a landscape,our results indicate that it can improve soil water retention and could be an effective practice for soil and water conservation.

On the thermo-mechanical properties of unsaturated soils

The establishment of energy balance equation is necessary to study the thermo-mechanical properties of unsaturated soils.To solve this equation,the determination of two fundamental parameters as volumetric specific parameter and thermal conductivity coefficient is essential.In this paper,the effective thermal conductivity coefficient of dry soil grain is analyzed for soils with different compositions,and the thermo-mechanical properties of porous media with water and gas are studied by considering the soil water retention curve（SWRC）.Different methods,i.e.volumetric average method,self-consistent method,Hashin-Strikman method,are employed to calculate thermal conductivity coefficients,and a new method is proposed to determine the thermo-mechanical parameters.Comparison of the results obtained by different methods shows that the proposed method is in a good agreement with the experimental results and is suitable for describing the main properties of the thermo-mechanical behaviors of soils.The relationship between the SWRC and the seepage curve is further studied by the natural proportional rule.The characteristics of the SWRC,its differential coefficient and the seepage curve,are investigated by considering the physico-mechanical mechanism;the limit scopes of the indices of the SWRC and the seepage curve are also given.

Spatiotemporal characteristics and influencing factors of ecosystem services in Central Asia

Land use/land cover(LULC)change and climate change are two major factors affecting the provision of ecosystem services which are closely related to human well-being.However,a clear understanding of the relationships between these two factors and ecosystem services in Central Asia is still lacking.This study aimed to comprehensively assess ecosystem services in Central Asia and analyze how they are impacted by changes in LULC and climate.The spatiotemporal patterns of three ecosystem services during the period of 2000-2015,namely the net primary productivity(NPP),water yield,and soil retention,were quantified and mapped by the Carnegie-Ames-Stanford Approach(CASA)model,Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Tradeoffs(InVEST)model,and Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation(RUSLE).Scenarios were used to determine the relative importance and combined effect of LULC change and climate change on ecosystem services.Then,the relationships between climate factors(precipitation and temperature)and ecosystem services,as well as between LULC change and ecosystem services,were further discussed.The results showed that the high values of ecosystem services appeared in the southeast of Central Asia.Among the six biomes(alpine forest region(AFR),alpine meadow region(AMR),typical steppe region(TSR),desert steppe region(DSR),desert region(DR),and lake region(LR)),the values of ecosystem services followed the order of AFR>AMR>TSR>DSR>DR>LR.In addition,the values of ecosystem services fluctuated during the period of 2000-2015,with the most significant decreases observed in the southeast mountainous area and northwest of Central Asia.LULC change had a greater impact on the NPP,while climate change had a stronger influence on the water yield and soil retention.The combined LULC change and climate change exhibited a significant synergistic effect on ecosystem services in most of Central Asia.Moreover,ecosystem services were more strongly and positively correlated with precipitation than with temperature.The greening of desert areas and forest land expansion could improve ecosystem services,but unreasonable development of cropland and urbanization have had an adverse impact on ecosystem services.According to the results,ecological stability in Central Asia can be achieved through the natural vegetation protection,reasonable urbanization,and ecological agriculture development.

Assessment of Super Absorbent Polymer (SAP) on Plant Available Water (PAW) in Dry Lands

One of the ways of overcoming the cost of irrigation is through in-situ water harvesting at the plant roots. Super absorbent polymer (SAP) can facilitate water harvesting at the plant roots. This study attempted to assess the effect of SAP on plant available water (PAW) of different soils. In this study, SAP was sequentially added at the rate of 0.2%, 0.3% and 0.5% of the soil weight and its impact assessed in clay, sandy clay and sandy loam soils. The moisture retention characteristics of the original and SAP treated soils were studied using soil water retention curves (SWRC) and results modelled using Gardner model. PAW was estimated from SWRC as the difference between moisture content at 1.5 and 3 bar in all soils. The difference in PAW between original and treated soils was assessed at 5% level of significance. The WRC of all the samples was adequately found to be described by the Gardner model (Coefficient of determination R2 ≥ 98% and residual standard error (RSE) ≤ 0.04). SWRC changed with increase in SAP percentage in clay, sandy clay and sandy loam soils. Clay had a higher change in water retention then sandy clay and lastly sandy loam. Plant available water content (PAW) in all soils increased. In clay soil it increased with increase in SAP from 0.3291 at zero SAP to 0.6223 at 0.5% SAP. Sandy clay soil increased in PAW from 0.2721 at zero SAP to 0.5335 at 0.5% SAP and Sandy loam soils from 0.1691 at zero SAP to 0.3461 at 0.5% SAP. Hence, from the study SAP can be used to conserve irrigation water in the plant roots and therefore reducing the cost since PAW has been increased.

Estimation of Soil Water Retention Curve: An Asymmetrical Pore-Solid Fractal Model

The soil water retention curve is an important hydraulic function for the study of flow transport processes in unsaturated soils. The objective of this study was to develop a soil water retention function using a generalized fractal approach. The model exhibits asymmetry between the solid phase and pore phase, which is in marked contrast to the symmetry between phases present in a conventional fractal model. The retention function includes 4 parameters： the saturated water content θs, the air entry value ha, the fractal dimension Df, and an empirical parameter β, characterizing the complicated soil pore structures. Sixty one data sets, covering a wide range of soil structure and textural properties, were used to evaluate the applicability of the proposed soil water retention function. The retention function is shown to be a general model, which incorporates several existing retention models. The values of β/θs and （θs-θr ）/β were used as indexes to quantify the relationships between the proposed retention function and the existing retention models. The proposed function fits all the data very well, whereas other tested models only match about 16%-48% of the soil retention data.

Biochar Effect on Water Evaporation and Hydraulic Conductivity in Sandy Soil

Biochar, as a kind of soil amendment, has important effects on soil water retention. In this research, 4 different kinds of biochars were used to investigate their influences on hydraulic properties and water evaporation in a sandy soil from Hebei Province, China. Biochar had strong absorption ability in the sandy soil. The ratio of water content in the biochar to that in the sandy soil was less than the corresponding ratio of porosity. Because of the different hydraulic properties between the sandy soil and the biochar, the saturated hydraulic conductivity of the sandy soil gradually decreased with the increasing biochar addition. The biochar with larger pore volume and average pore diameter had better water retention. More water was retained in the sandy soil when the biochar was added in a single layer, but not when the biochar was uniformly mixed with soil. Particle size of the added biochar had a significant influence on the hydraulic properties of the mixture of sand and biochar. Grinding the biochar into powder destroyed the pore structure, which simultaneously reduced the water absorption ability and hydraulic conductivity of the biochar. For this reason, adding biochar powder to the sandy soil would not decrease the water evaporation loss of the soil itself.

Soil Hydraulic Properties： Influence of Tillage and Cover Crops

Understanding the effects of cover crops and tillage on soil physical properties is important for determining soil productivity. This study was conducted at Lincoln University＇s Freeman Center, USA to evaluate the effects of tillage and cover crop management on soil hydraulic properties. The field site included three replicate blocks in a randomized complete block design with each plot measuring 21.3 m in length and 12.2 m in width. Treatment factors were tillage at two levels （moldboard plow tillage vs. no tillage） and cover crop at two levels （cereal rye （Secale cereal） cover crop vs. no cover crop）. Soil samples were collected in late spring/early summer from each treatment at 10-cm depth increments from the soil surface to a depth of 40 cm using cores （76.2-mm diameter and 76.2-mm length）. Soil bulk density was 13% lower with tillage compared with no-tillage. Volumetric water content was significantly higher at 0.0 and -0.4 kPa pressures with tillage compared with no tillage. Tillage increased the proportion of coarse mesopores by 32gc compared with no tillage, resulting in 87% higher saturated hydraulic conductivity （Ksat）. Cover crop increased the proportion of macropores by 24~ compared with no cover crop; this can potentially increase water infiltration and reduce runoff. As a result of higher macroporosity, Ksat was higher under cover crop compared with no cover crop. This study demonstrated that tillage can benefit soil hydraulic properties in the short term, but these effects may not persist over time. Cover crops may slightly improve soil hydraulic properties, but longer term studies are needed to evaluate the long-term effects.

Soil micromorphological and physical properties after application of composts with polyethylene and biocomponent-derived polymers added during composting

Composts are considered to be one of the best soil amendments. However, the effects of composts with added polymeric materials on soil physical,hydraulic, and micromorphological properties have not been widely discussed. Changes in soil physical properties influence the numerous services that soils provide. We studied the impacts of composts with the addition of three different polymers(F1–F3) produced from polyethylene and thermoplastic corn starch on the physical, hydraulic, and micromorphological properties of two soils, a Cambic Phaeozem and a Luvic Phaeozem. Applying composts with polymers had limited or no significant effect on soil bulk density and porosity, but increased the field water capacity by 18%–82% and 3%–6% and the plant-available water content by 15%–23% and 4%–17% for the Cambic Phaeozem and Luvic Phaeozem, respectively. The application of composts with polymers had a greater effect on the Cambic Phaeozem than on the Luvic Phaeozem. It was suggested that the use of modified composts led to changes in soil physical properties and micromorphological features and this effect was dependent on the compost application rate. Composts made with the addition of composite synthetic and natural material-derived polymers during composting were found to be a composite mixture that can be successfully used in agriculture.

Hydraulic energy indices reveal spatial dependence in a subtropical soil under maize crop in Southern Brazil

Soil physical quality(SPQ)assessment is an important part in the evaluation of soil use,management,and conservation.It can be assessed using several physical properties,hydraulic indices,and functions.Soils from tropical and temperate regions represent different physical behaviors,and the quantification of their physical properties is important to support soil evaluation and modelling.The objective of this study was to evaluate the SPQ in a subtropical field under maize crop cultivation according to its physical properties,hydraulic indices,and functions in an attempt to infer the spatial variability and to determine the behavior of soil physical structure across a spatial domain.Commonly used soil key physical variables,such as texture,bulk density,total porosity,saturated hydraulic conductivity,and organic carbon content,were measured in a regular grid with a soil sampling density of 30 points per hectare,covering an area of0.5 ha.Saturated hydraulic conductivity varied strongly between subsamples and in the field,suggesting the heterogeneity of the soil structure regarding water drainage.The physical variables were combined with other indicators,which were based on the soil water retention curve and the pore size distribution(PSD)function.Correlation analysis was performed to verify the relationship between the measured and calculated variables,and some strong linear correlations were revealed,such as between aeration energy index and microporosity(r=0.608)and water retention energy index with microporosity(r=0.532)and with bulk density(r=0.541).For most sampled locations,the shape and location parameters of PSD showed results outside of the optimum ranges,whereas the hydraulic energy indices and cumulative hydraulic energy functions presented values that were similar to those found for some tropical soils described in the literature.The spatial variability of these indices was described using semivariograms and kriged maps,indicating the variability of the SPQ in this field.