Soil properties and not plant factors affect both abundant and rare microbial taxa after thinning in a mixed stand of Cunninghamia lanceolata and Sassafras tzumu

Thinning is an effective management step for sustainable forest development,yet less attention is paid to the restoration of soil microbiota after thinning.In this study,both abundant and rare soil microbial communities(i.e.,bacterial,fungal),were evaluated under various thinning treatments in a mixed stand of Cunninghamia lanceolata and Sassafras tzumu using Mi Seq sequencing.Thinning did not significantly change either abundant or rare bacterial and fungal community composition,but affected their alpha diversity.The Shannon–Wiener indexes of rare fungal taxa under medium thinning were significantly lower than in the light thinning(P<0.05 level).Xanthobacteraceae dominated the abundant bacterial taxa,and Saitozyma and Mortierlla the abundant fungal taxa.The most common rare bacterial taxa varied;there was no prevalent rare fungal taxa under different thinnings.In addition,soil available nitrogen,total phosphorus,and p H had significant effects on rare bacterial taxa.Nutrients,especially available phosphorus,but not nitrogen,affected abundant and rare soil fungi.The results indicate that soil properties rather than plant factors affect abundant and rare microbial communities in soils of mixed stands.Thinning,through mediating soil properties,influences both abundant and rare bacterial and fungal communities in the mixed C.lanceolata and S.tzumu stand.

Review of Studies on Structural Features,Regeneration Features and Management of Natural Spruce-Fir Mixed Stand of Coniferous and Broadleaved Trees in China

Natural spruce-fir mixed stand is one of the main forest types in the world,and also has huge ecological,economic and social benefits.According to the structural characteristics and succession laws of natural spruce-fir forest,it is urgent and significant to develop scientific management measures for natural spruce-fir mixed stand in line with local conditions.The article outlined the characteristics of the distribution and structure, regeneration and succession laws of natural spruce-fir forest,and analyzed the current situation and existing problems of natural spruce-fir forest management.The following recommendations were eventually made:1) In no cutting area,all logging activities should be banned.In a restricted cutting area,the cutting intensity should be generally controlled within 15%of the stock volume before cutting.On the commodity forest management area, the appropriate cutting intensity should be determined according to the volume per hectare,determine and classification management should be implemented in accordance with the characteristics of forest,to ensure the scientific selective cutting.2) Closure for afforestation,planting and repair planting should be adopted on vegetation-intensive land,sparse shrubs covered land and harvesting slash,in order to accelerate natural regeneration.3) The in situ conservation should be conducted in nature reserves and scientific experiment stations of rare and endangered species,such as Abies chensiensis,Picea neoveitchii,Abies vuanbaoshanensis,to reduce human destruction.4) It is supposed to collect seeds in time,establish nursery,actively establish forest, expand artificial population and promote natural regeneration.

The variation of nutrient concentration in the rhizosphere of larch and ash in mixed and monoculture stands

Soil samples were taken from rhizosphere zone and off-rhizosphere zone of ash (Fraxinus mandshurica Rupr.) and larch (Larix olgensis Henry) in mixed and monoculture stands, and the nutrient concentration of N, P, and K was analyzed to study the effect of nutrients variation on yield improvement in the mixed stand. The result showed that: 1) The stand level total soil N concentration and available N in the mixed stand was similar to that in the monoculture stand of ash, but higher than that in monoculture stand of larch. The total N and available N concentration in rhizosphere soil of ash in the mixed stand was similar to that in the monoculture stand of ash, but the available N concentration in rhizosphere of larch in mixed stand was much higher than in its monoculture. 2) The stand level total P, total K concentration in the mixed stand was similar to that in monocul-ture stands of both species, but available P and K was more concentrated in the mixed stand than in the monoculture stands of ash. The rhizosphere available P and K of ash in the mixed stand was 44.1% and 13.5% (for the 9-yr-old stands) and 79.6% and 25.6% (for the 21-yr-old stands) higher than that in its monoculture. The improvement of soil P and K availability in the mixed stand is concluded.

Simulation and Implementation of Structure and Growth Visualization System of Artificial Mixed Stand

[Objective] The objective of this paper was to study the simulation and implementation of structure and growth visualization system of artificial mixed stand. [Method] The mixed stand structure visualization model and growth visualization model were built on the base of the characteristics of mixed stand structure and the relationship between growth and environment; and the C# language and MOGRE graphics engine were used to establish the mixed stand structure and growth visualization system. [Result] The mixed stand structure visualization model and growth visualization model were built, as well as the mixed stand structure and growth visualization system. [Conclusion] This paper realized the visualization simulation of the mixed stand structure and growth.

Determining structural variation in a managed mixed stand in an old-growth forest, northern Iran

Numerous approaches have been developed to quantify forest structure modules.A variety has measured each as part of stand attributes.This study was carried out in managed mixed stands in northern Iran.The objective was to quantify stand structure and its variation before and after tree marking through the Gini index and structural triangle method.A full sampling inventory was taken in 2004 and 2014 at the beginning and end of a period,before and after tree marking operations in five stands.The results indicate that the Gini index was 39.5,62.2,43.0,82.0 and 74.0%forⅠ,Ⅱ,Ⅲ,ⅣandⅤstands respectively.Furthermore,approximate structural diameters were determined as a large category forⅠ,Ⅱ,ⅢandⅤstands while standⅡhad an intermediate-large class pre-tree marking to an intermediate-small class post-tree marking.The paired t-test results were not significant for tree numbers and growing stock changes for all species,and for beech,hornbeam,and velvet maple before and after tree harvesting in the whole stand.Therefore,the Gini index and the structural triangle method can be used for natural stand modeling,structural diversity designation,and for management practices in nature-oriented forestry strategies.

Growth effect of Manchurian ash in mixed stands

The growth of ash (Fraxinus mandshurica) in different mixed stands with larch (Larix gmelini), Korean pine (Pinus koraiensis) and spruce (Picea koraiensis) had been investigated. Meanwhile, the relationship between the growth gain of mixed stand and topographic factor, and the growth comparison of ash in pure and mixed stands with different age-stages were presented in this paper. The results show that the effect of ash and larch mixed stand is very significant. The growth gain of ash in mixed stand on east slope is better than that on west. The growth effect is the most significant on east upper slope and on west down slope. The growth of ash can be increased significantly during different age-stages, but of Larch only through its occupying dominant position in above-ground competition.

THE SEASONAL DYNAMICS OF NUTRIENT CONTENTS IN MANCHURIA ASH-DAHURIAN LARCH MIXED STAND

The yield increasing mechanism of the manchurian ash (Fraxinus mandchurica) and dahurian larch(Larix gmelini) mixed stand was studied on nutrition status of soil and leaves. The results showed that nutrient contents of leaves and contents of the available nutrients of soil in the mixed and pure stands varied with seasons of the year. The available phosphorus contentS of the soil in the larch belt were much higher than those in the manchurian ash belt during growhg season, with the highest value of 3.5 mg/100g, 2~3 times of the latter. The nitrogen contents of leaves of the manchurian ash trees nearest from dahurian larch belt wer 12.7%~80.8% higher than those of its pure stand, and phosphorus 13.4%~140. 8%. The different uptake thythm of the nutrients modified the interspecific competition. The general conclusion is that the high contents of available phosphorus of the soil in dahurian larch belt improved the growing condition of nearby manhurian ash trees.

THE CHARACTERS AND EFFECTS OF AVAILABLE PHOSPHORUS IN DAHURIAN LARCH-MANCHURICA ASH MIXED SEEDLING STAND

The characters and effects of available phosphorus in dahurian larch-Manchuria ash mixed stand was analyzed through measuring available phosphorus of rhizosphere-soil, phosphorus of living and withered leaves and tree height The study results showed that the phosphorus of living leaves of larch was equal to or less than that of ash. For 5-year-old larch-ash ndxed seedlings stand,larch has more available phosphorus in soil, which is not caused by the decomposition of leaves, but the acts of root. The root of larch activates available phosphorus by acidoid fme rhisosphere-soil. At the site with a high concentration of available phosphorus (grondg bean before), 5 aged larch grows faster than the same aged ash in pure stand. The ash at the site with a high concentration of available phosphorus at 20 cm soil layer showed a trend to grow over larch, and at the site, with a low concentration of available phosphorus at 20 cm soil layer, had a trend to be suppressed by same aged larch.

Stand structure and yield of the mixed white poplar and black locust plantations on sandy ridges between the Danube and Tisza rivers in Hungary

The paper deals with the stand structure and yield of black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) forests mixed with white (Populus alba L.) in various proportions, partly applying a new methodological approach. The main stand structure and yield factors were determined separately for each species, measured stem by stem, using the volume functions prepared for each species. The ratio of the volumes of the species (A and B) in mixed and in pure stands (based on volume tables) was determined. A close relationship has been found between the ratio by relative total volume and the proportion (by the number of stems) of the species. The relative surplus in the volume of the mixed stands varied between 1.24-1.55 at the age of 16 compared to the control, i.e. the yield of pure stands of the species concerned. The trial has also proven that if two species have a fast initial growth rate and a similar rotation age, they can be planted in mixed stands resulting in mutual advantages.

Prediction of tree crown width in natural mixed forests using deep learning algorithm

Crown width(CW)is one of the most important tree metrics,but obtaining CW data is laborious and timeconsuming,particularly in natural forests.The Deep Learning(DL)algorithm has been proposed as an alternative to traditional regression,but its performance in predicting CW in natural mixed forests is unclear.The aims of this study were to develop DL models for predicting tree CW of natural spruce-fir-broadleaf mixed forests in northeastern China,to analyse the contribution of tree size,tree species,site quality,stand structure,and competition to tree CW prediction,and to compare DL models with nonlinear mixed effects(NLME)models for their reliability.An amount of total 10,086 individual trees in 192 subplots were employed in this study.The results indicated that all deep neural network(DNN)models were free of overfitting and statistically stable within 10-fold cross-validation,and the best DNN model could explain 69%of the CW variation with no significant heteroskedasticity.In addition to diameter at breast height,stand structure,tree species,and competition showed significant effects on CW.The NLME model(R^(2)=0.63)outperformed the DNN model(R^(2)=0.54)in predicting CW when the six input variables were consistent,but the results were the opposite when the DNN model(R^(2)=0.69)included all 22 input variables.These results demonstrated the great potential of DL in tree CW prediction.

A basal area increment model for individual trees in mixed continuous cover forests in Iranian Caspian forests

The aim of this study was to develop and test a new basal area growth model in mixed species continuous cover forests in northern Iran.Weanalyzed 421 core samples from 6 main species in the forest area to develop our growth model.In each plot,we measured variables such as total tree height(m),diameter at breast height(DBH)(cm)and basal area of larger trees as cumulative basal areas of trees(GCUM)ofDBH[5 cm.The empirical data were analyzed using regression analysis.There was a statistically significant nonlinear function between the annual basal area increment,as the dependent variable,and the basal area of the individual trees and competition as explanatory variables.Reference area from the largest trees,was circular plot with area of 0.1 ha.GCUM was estimated for trees of DBH>5 cm.Furthermore,we investigated the dependencies of diameter growth of different species on stand density at different levels of competition,and diameter development of individual trees through time.The results indicate that competition caused by larger neighborhood trees has a negative effect on growth.In addition,the maximum diameter increment is affected by competition level.Therefore,the maximum diameter increment of species occurs when the trees are about 35–40 cm in dense-forest(40 to 0 m^2 per ha)and when the trees are about 60 to 70 cm in very dense forest(60 to 0 m^2 per ha)which is more likely to Caspian natural forests with high level density due to uneven-aged composition of stands.

An imputation/copula-based stochastic individual tree growth model for mixed species Acadian forests： a case study using the Nova Scotia permanent sample plot network

Background： A novel approach to modelling individual tree growth dynamics is proposed. The approach combines multiple imputation and copula sampling to produce a stochastic individual tree growth and yield projection system. Methods： The Nova Scotia, Canada permanent sample plot network is used as a case study to develop and test the modelling approach. Predictions from this model are compared to predictions from the Acadian variant of the Forest Vegetation Simulator, a widely used statistical individual tree growth and yield model. Results： Diameter and height growth rates were predicted with error rates consistent with those produced using statistical models. Mortality and ingrowth error rates were higher than those observed for diameter and height, but also were within the bounds produced by traditional approaches for predicting these rates. Ingrowth species composition was very poorly predicted. The model was capable of reproducing a wide range of stand dynamic trajectories and in some cases reproduced trajectories that the statistical model was incapable of reproducing. Conclusions： The model has potential to be used as a benchmarking tool for evaluating statistical and process models and may provide a mechanism to separate signal from noise and improve our ability to analyze and learn from large regional datasets that often have underlying flaws in sample design.

Effects of Different Types of Chinese Fir Stands on Nu－trient Status of Soils

The effects of different types of Chinese fir stand, including those with various composition (pure andmixed), in various cropping systems (first and continuous cropping system) and at different ages, on thenutrient status of soils in the hilly regions of southern Anhui Province were studied by means of ecologicalsequential comparison on the basis of similar climate and soil type. The work was carried out in the XiaoxiForest Farm of Jingxian County and the Caijiaqiao Forest Farm of Jingde County, where the soil is parayellowsoil derived from phyllite and sandstone. The results revealed that with the increase of age, Chinese fir purestand could accumulate organic matter and nitrogen in the soil but it resulted in decreasing of soil PH and baseions (especially Ca￣(2+)) compared to its mixed stand with broad-leaf trees such as Chinese sassafra.s. In orderto improve the soil fertility, it would be better to mix Chinese fir with broad-leaf trees when afforestation.In the management of Chinese fir pure stand, base compounds and phosphates should be added to the soilfor maintaining soil fertility and raising forest productivity.

Stand management optimization——the role of simplifications

Background:Studies on optimal stand management often make simplifications or restrict the choice of treatments,Examples of simplifications are neglecting natural regeneration that appears on a plantation site,omitting advance regeneration in simulations,or restricting thinning treatments to low thinning(thinning from below).Methods:This study analyzed the imparts of simplifications on the optimization results for Fennoscandian boreal forests.Management of pine and spruce plantations was optimized by gradually reducing the number of simplifying assumptions.Results:Forced low thinning,cleaning the plantation from the natural regeneration of mixed species and ignoring advance regeneration all had a major impact on optimization results.High thinning(thinning from above) resulted in higher NPV and longer rotation length than thinning from below.It was profitable to leave a mixed stand in the tending treatment of young plantation.When advance regeneration was taken into account,it was profitable to increase the number of thinnings and postpone final felling.In the optimal management,both pine and spruce plantation was gradually converted into uneven-aged mixture of spruce and birch.Conclusions:The results suggest that,with the current management costs and timber price level,it may be profitable to switch to continuous cover management on medium growing sites of Fennoscandian boreal forests.

Using a stand-level model to predict light absorption in stands with vertically and horizontally heterogeneous canopies

Background： Forest ecosystem functioning is strongly influenced by the absorption of photosynthetically active radiation （APAR）, and therefore, accurate predictions of APAR are critical for many process-based forest growth models. The Lambert-Beer law can be applied to estimate APAR for simple homogeneous canopies composed of one layer, one species, and no canopy gaps. However, the vertical and horizontal structure of forest canopies is rarely homogeneous. Detailed tree-level models can account for this heterogeneity but these often have high input and computational demands and work on finer temporal and spatial resolutions than required by stand-level growth models. The aim of this study was to test a stand-level light absorption model that can estimate APAR by individual species in mixed-species and multi-layered stands with any degree of canopy openness including open-grown trees to closed canopies. Methods： The stand-level model was compared with a detailed tree-level model that has already been tested in mixed-species stands using empirical data. Both models were parameterised for five different forests, including a wide range of species compositions, species proportions, stand densities, crown architectures and canopy structures. Results： The stand-level model performed well in all stands except in the stand where extinction coefficients were unusually variable and it appears unlikely that APAR could be predicted in such stands using （tree- or stand-level） models that do not allow individuals of a given species to have different extinction coefficients, leaf-area density or analogous parameters. Conclusion： This model is parameterised with species-specific information about extinction coefficients and mean crown length, diameter, height and leaf area. It could be used to examine light dynamics in complex canopies and in stand-level growth models.

Forest Response to the US 1990 Clean Air Act: The Southern Spruce-Fir Ecosystem

The history of the Black Mountains in North Carolina and the southern Spruce-Fir ecosystem has been fraught with widespread forest decline since the mid 1960’s. Balsam Woolly Adelgid attacks and acidic deposition were two of the most recognized causes of decline. Uncertainty arose about the future of these forests, and projections were made regarding the endangerment or extinction of the endemic Fraser fir ([Pursh] Poiret). This study analyzed data sets from a permanent plot network in the Black Mountains dating 1985, 2002, and 2012. Indications that the Fraser fir population is stabilizing from a “boom-bust” cycle of population growth and has entered the stem exclusion stage of forest stand development are evident. Fir live stem density increased more than 250% from 1985 to 2002, and then declined 40% by 2012 at the highest elevations in the forest. Overall, fir appeared to be more impacted on western facing slopes than eastern ones. The population of red spruce experienced a steady decrease in live stem counts, but an increase in live basal area through all years, and at all elevation classes (1675 m, 1830 m, and 1980 m), indicating a normal progression through stand development. Red spruce was also most negatively impacted on western facing slopes. Live stem density was significantly higher (P 0.001) than eastern plots, but live basal area was similar between the two aspects. Atmospheric deposition concentrations of the four main acidic molecules at Mt. Mitchell all peaked in 1998, but decreased by 2012. These reductions, occurring shortly after tightened regulations in the 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act may have potential implications for increased forest resilience.

闽楠-木荷混交林空间结构及其养分利用

【目的】为探讨混交林中闽楠和木荷的种间关系,确定木荷能否作为闽楠的伴生树种营建健康高效的闽楠-木荷混交林。【方法】以金洞林场16年生的闽楠-木荷混交林以及闽楠纯林、木荷纯林为研究对象,通过分析闽楠-木荷混交林的根系分布特性与林分空间结构特性来探讨闽楠-木荷混交林地上与地下部分的种间关系;通过分析不同物候期下3种林分的闽楠与木荷叶片养分的动态规律来阐明闽楠与木荷之间的养分利用关系。【结果】1)在16年生闽楠-木荷混交林中,在闽楠周围1.5 m内闽楠和木荷的根系分布虽有部分重叠,但闽楠仍占据优势地位,闽楠和木荷在地下生长空间和养分吸收利用方面存在竞争但竞争不激烈;2)整体林分空间结构上,闽楠、木荷纯林略优于闽楠-木荷混交林,说明混交林的树种不同,树种之间的生长特性和生态特性不一样,林分的均一性会差一些,对其调整结构的难度要大于纯林。混交林中,木荷已对闽楠形成了一定的竞争优势;3)闽楠-木荷混交林中,对养分吸收利用在物候期上部分不同步,存在相对有利的互补关系;从所有的物候期来看,闽楠叶片的N、P、K含量在大部分时期都高于木荷,表明闽楠-木荷混交更有利于闽楠对养分的吸收利用,木荷对养分的需求更低;4)16年生混交林中闽楠、木荷的生长速度要优于相应的纯林,表明前期竞争促进了林分的生长。【结论】闽楠与木荷混交有利于闽楠获得更多的养分,适度竞争促进了林木的生长,木荷是闽楠较好的伴生树种。

混交对杉木和山杜英混交林生长、结构和生产力的影响

为探究杉木(Cunninghamia lanceolata)与山杜英(Elaeocarpus sylvestris)的混交效应,以景德镇枫树山林场20年生杉木纯林、山杜英纯林和杉木-山杜英混交林为研究对象,每种林分类型设置3种坡位(上坡、中坡和下坡),分析树种混交对林分生长的影响,并分别探究混交效应对立地条件和生境因子的响应。结果表明:混交林蓄积较预期蓄积增加5%,表现略微增产;混交林中杉木蓄积较杉木纯林增加15%,混交林中山杜英蓄积较山杜英纯林减少13%。相对于纯林,两树种直径分布特征对混交的响应呈相反趋势,混交林中杉木直径分布峰值向高阶移动,而混交林中山杜英直径分布峰值向低阶移动。混交林及其纯林粗根直径-胸径的异速生长分析表明,混交林中杉木生长侧重于树干生长,而山杜英生长侧重于根系生长;无论林型和树种,坡位由上到下,林木生长会侧重于树干生长。杉木-山杜英混交效应与地位指数呈显著负相关(P<0.05),土壤有效磷是混交林生长的主要限制因子。杉木与山杜英混交可促进林分生长,且混交林对较差立地条件有更好的适应性。

不同混交模式下幼龄桉树混交林的生长和水土流失特征研究

设计尾巨桉×红椿和大花序桉×闽楠的垂直、水平、块状三种混交方式的试验林,以研究不同混交模式下桉树混交林的生长和水土流失规律。结果表明:1年生尾巨桉、红椿、大花序桉和闽楠分别在水平、块状、块状和水平混交模式下的树高增长率最大,依次为1560.00%、863.33%、457.50%和6.67%,因此水平混交模式和块状混交模式的林分树高生长效果较好。在尾巨桉×红椿和大花序桉×闽楠两种林分中的月均地表径流以块状混交模式最少,分别是107.72 L和215.24 L,月均土壤流失以块状混交模式较少,分别是4.95 kg和7.25 kg,因此块状混交模式对水土保持的效果较优于垂直混交模式和水平混交模式。综合考虑,采用块状混交模式效果最好。

杉木人工林套种不同树种对林分生长和植物多样性的影响

研究杉木林间伐后,于林下套种香梓楠、华盖木、红豆杉、缅茄4种树种,对比未套种杉木纯林,分析套种后林分的生长状况和植物多样性,为杉木人工林近自然改造与可持续经营提供参考依据。结果表明:香梓楠、华盖木、红豆杉与杉木形成异龄复层混交林,香梓楠胸径、树高生长量及保存率最高,分别达到10.5 cm、9.8 m、82.22%,显著高于其他树种;缅茄胸径、树高生长量及保存率最低,分别为2.4 cm、1.7 m、15.66%。套种缅茄、香梓楠、华盖木对杉木胸径有促进作用,套种缅茄后杉木树高显著提高。5种杉木林分林下植被中共出现33科52属60种植物,草本层出现植物15科25属27种,以禾本科和菊科植物为主;灌木层出现植物18科27属33种,以大戟科、茜草科和桑科植物为主;4种杉木混交林林下出现植物比杉木纯林增加24种。杉木×香梓楠、杉木×华盖木林下植物多样性比杉木×缅茄和杉木纯林显著提高。综合杉木间伐后套种不同树种表现,套种香梓楠对林分生长和植物多样性更具优势,可作为今后杉木近自然改造的参考模式。