Unraveling the gut-brain axis:the impact of steroid hormones and nutrition on Parkinson's disease

This comprehensive review explores the intricate relationship between nutrition,the gut microbiome,steroid hormones,and Parkinson's disease within the context of the gut-brain axis.The gut-brain axis plays a pivotal role in neurodegenerative diseases like Parkinson's disease,encompassing diverse components such as the gut microbiota,immune system,metabolism,and neural pathways.The gut microbiome,profoundly influenced by dietary factors,emerges as a key player.Nutrition during the first 1000 days of life shapes the gut microbiota composition,influencing immune responses and impacting both child development and adult health.High-fat,high-sugar diets can disrupt this delicate balance,contributing to inflammation and immune dysfunction.Exploring nutritional strategies,the Mediterranean diet's anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties show promise in reducing Parkinson's disease risk.Microbiome-targeted dietary approaches and the ketogenic diet hold the potential in improving brain disorders.Beyond nutrition,emerging research uncovers potential interactions between steroid hormones,nutrition,and Parkinson's disease.Progesterone,with its anti-inflammatory properties and presence in the nervous system,offers a novel option for Parkinson's disease therapy.Its ability to enhance neuroprotection within the enteric nervous system presents exciting prospects.The review addresses the hypothesis thatα-synuclein aggregates originate from the gut and may enter the brain via the vagus nerve.Gastrointestinal symptoms preceding motor symptoms support this hypothesis.Dysfunctional gut-brain signaling during gut dysbiosis contributes to inflammation and neurotransmitter imbalances,emphasizing the potential of microbiota-based interventions.In summary,this review uncovers the complex web of interactions between nutrition,the gut microbiome,steroid hormones,and Parkinson's disease within the gut-brain axis framework.Understanding these connections not only offers novel therapeutic insights but also illuminates the origins of neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's disease.

Gut microbiota affects the estrus return of sows by regulating the metabolism of sex steroid hormones

Background Sex hormones play important roles in the estrus return of post-weaning sows.Previous studies have demonstrated a complex and bi-directional regulation between sex hormones and gut microbiota.However,the extent to which the gut microbiota affects estrus return of post-weaning sows is largely unknown.Results In this study,we first screened 207 fecal samples from well-phenotyped sows by 16S rRNA gene sequencing and identified significant associations between microbes and estrus return of post-weaning sows.Using metagenomic sequencing data from 85 fecal samples,we identified 37 bacterial species that were significantly associated with estrus return.Normally returning sows were characterized by increased abundances of L.reuteri and P.copri and decreased abundances of B.fragilis,S.suis,and B.pseudolongum.The changes in gut microbial composition significantly altered the functional capacity of steroid hormone biosynthesis in the gut microbiome.The results were confirmed in a validation cohort.Significant changes in sex steroid hormones and related compounds were found between normal and non-return sows via metabolome analysis.An integrated analysis of differential bacterial species,metagenome,and fecal metabolome provided evidence that normal return-associated bacterial species L.reuteri and Prevotella spp.participated in the degradation of pregnenolone,progesterone,and testosterone,thereby promoting estrogen biosynthesis.Furthermore,the microbial metabolites related to sow energy and nutrient supply or metabolic disorders also showed relationships with sow estrus return.Conclusions An integrated analysis of differentially abundant bacterial species,metagenome,and fecal metabolome revealed the involvement of L.reuteri and Prevotella spp.in sow estrus return.These findings provide deep insight into the role of gut microbiota in the estrus return of post-weaning sows and the complex cross-talk between gut microbiota and sex hormones,suggesting that the manipulation of the gut microbiota could be an effective strategy to improve sow estrus return after weaning.

Metformin:A promising clinical therapeutical approach for BPH treatment via inhibiting dysregulated steroid hormones-induced prostatic epithelial cells proliferation

The occurrence of benign prostate hyperplasia(BPH)was related to disrupted sex steroid hormones,and metformin(Met)had a clinical response to sex steroid hormone-related gynaecological disease.However,whether Met exerts an antiproliferative effect on BPH via sex steroid hormones remains unclear.Here,our clinical study showed that along with prostatic epithelial cell(PEC)proliferation,sex steroid hormones were dysregulated in the serum and prostate of BPH patients.As the major contributor to dysregulated sex steroid hormones,elevated dihydrotestosterone(DHT)had a significant positive relationship with the clinical characteristics of BPH patients.Activation of adenosine 5'-monophosphate(AMP)-activated protein kinase(AMPK)by Met restored dysregulated sex steroid hormone homeostasis and exerted antiproliferative effects against DHT-induced proliferation by inhibiting the formation of androgen receptor(AR)-mediated Yes-associated protein(YAP1)-TEA domain transcription factor(TEAD4)heterodimers.Met’s anti-proliferative effects were blocked by AMPK inhibitor or YAP1 overexpression in DHT-cultured BPH-1 cells.Our findings indicated that Met would be a promising clinical therapeutic approach for BPH by inhibiting dysregulated steroid hormone-induced PEC proliferation.

Gender disparity in COVID-19: Role of sex steroid hormones

The emerging pandemic of COVID-19 caused by the novel pathogenic human coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 has caused significant morbidity and mortality across the globe,prompting the scientific world to search for preventive measures to interrupt the disease process.Demographic data indicates gender-based differences in COVID-19 morbidity with better outcome amongst females.Disparity in sex-dependent morbidity and mortality in COVID-19 patients may be attributed to difference in levels of sex steroid hormones-androgens and estrogens.Evidence suggests that apart from the regulation of viral host factors,immunomodulatory and cardioprotective roles exerted by estrogen and progesterone may provide protection to females against COVID-19.Exploring the underlying mechanisms and beneficial effects of these hormones as an adjuvant to existing therapy may be a step towards improving the outcomes.This article aims to review studies demonstrating the role of sex steroidal hormones in modulating SARS-CoV-2 host factors and summarize plausible biological reasons for sex-based differences seen in COVID-19 mortality.

Associations of waist circumference with sex steroid hormones among 4031 USA children and adolescents

In the recent decades,obesity rates among children and adolescents,especially males,have increased significantly.This worldwide phenomenon is thought to significantly affect the levels of sex hormones.However,the association between waist circumference(a marker of abdominal obesity)and sex hormone levels in children and adolescents is unknown.In this study,4031 participants aged 6–19 years from the United States National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey(NHANES)in the USA were enrolled in this study.The common confounders of age,race,body mass index,educational level,family income,diabetes,and time of sample collection were also collected.The participants missing any of the above information were excluded from the study.We used multiple linear regression and other multiple statistics to assess the associations between waist circumference and serum testosterone,estradiol,sex hormone-binding globulin(SHBG),free androgen index(FAI),and testosterone/estradiol ratio(T/E2).Waist circumference remained associated with sex hormone levels in children and adolescents after controlling for covariates.As waist circumference increases,testosterone levels in children and adolescents show an overall decline after a brief increase,with the inflection point for waist circumference of 65–66 cm.In addition,waist circumference positively correlates with estradiol levels in male children(β=0.007,95%confidence interval:0.004–0.009).Moreover,circulating SHBG decreases in children and adolescents as waist circumference increases.In conclusion,this study highlighted waist circumference as a vital indicator affecting sex hormone levels in children and adolescents.

Mechanisms of Immune Tolerance and Inflammation via Gonadal Steroid Hormones in Preterm Birth

In 2019,preterm births(PTB)accounted for approximately 0.66 million deaths globally.PTB is also associated with a significantly higher risk of mortality and long-term complications for newborns.Long-term studies associated several factors,including disruption of immune tolerance and inflammation,with PTB.However,the pathogenesis of PTB remains unclear.Gonadal steroid hormones are critical for pregnancy maintenance and regulation of immune and inflammatory responses.However,it is not clear how unbalanced gonadal steroid hormones,such as imbalanced estrogen/androgen or estrogen/progesterone contribute to PTB.In this review,we discuss how gonadal steroid hormones mediate dysfunction in immune tolerance and inflammatory responses,which are known to promote the occurrence of PTB,and provide insight into PTB prediction.

Occurrence and fate of endogenous steroid hormones,alkylphenol ethoxylates, bisphenol A and phthalates in municipal sewage treatment systems

Steroid hormones, alkylphenol ethoxylates(APEOs) and phthalic acid esters(PAEs) are emerging endocrine disrupting chemicals(EDCs) that can interfere with the endocrine function in organisms at low concentrations. The occurrence, distribution behavior, removal rate and the fate of 31 target EDCs in sewage treatment plants, which consist of various treatment facilities and receiving water in Hong Kong, were investigated. Estrone,nonylphenol-di-ethoxylate and diethyl phthalate were found to be dominant in each group of influent samples with concentrations ranging from 11–33, 747–3945 and 445–4635 ng/L,respectively. Conversely, progesterone, nonylphenol-mono-ethoxylate and bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate were the most abundant in dewatered sludge, with concentrations ranging from 0.9–237, 75–19,743 and 4310–37,016 ng/g(dry weight). The removal rates of primary sedimentation and disinfection approaches were lower than 30% for most of the chemicals,while those of activated sludge and reverse osmosis were greater than 80% for more than two-thirds of the compounds, noticeably decreasing the estrogenic risk of sewage discharged into the environment. Steroid hormones were removed via biological degradation, while some APEOs and PAEs adsorbed to the sludge. Victoria Harbor poses a low to medium estrogenic risk mainly contributed by estrone and estradiol and deserves attention.

Adsorption and desorption of steroid hormones on saline soil

Soil organic matter content was the main driving factor affecting adsorption and desorption process of 17β-estradiol(E2)and 17α-ethynylestradiol(EE2)on saline soil.The adsorption and desorption of E2 and EE2 on three saline soils showed the similar behavior that soil with the highest organic content possessed the highest adsorption capacity and the lowest desorption capacity for E2 and EE2.The adsorption capacity of untreated soil samples(with organic matter)was larger than that of soil samples without organic matter.For soil with the largest adsorption capacity,adsorption capacity of E2/EE2 on the untreated soil and soil colloid(with organic matter)respectively reached 0.15/0.30μg/g and 0.16/0.33μg/g while the soil and soil colloid without organic matter hardly adsorbed pollutants.The adsorption capacity of E2/EE2 at the initial concentration of 100μg/L was 25/15 times higher than that at the initial concentration of 5μg/L.E2 and EE2 had the same adsorption sites on saline soil while EE2 possessed higher competition intensity for adsorption sites than E2.Pseudo-first-order model(R^(2)=0.995–0.986)and Langmuir model(R^(2)=0.989–0.999)could better fit the adsorption process of E2 or EE2.The thermodynamic study further showed that the adsorption of E2/EE2 on saline soil was a spontaneous exothermic process.The desorption capacity of EE2/E2 accounted for 40%/78%of the total adsorption capacity to possibly exert potential risk to the groundwater.The variation of the salinity led to the variation of soil organic carbon which subsequently changed the adsorption and desorption behaviors of endocrine disrupting chemicals in coastal saline soil.This study provides a new insight on the interfacial behavior of endocrine disrupting chemicals on saline soil.

Removal of steroid hormones from mariculture system using seaweed Caulerpa lentillifera

The removal of steroid hormones from the mariculture system using seaweeds(Caulerpa lentillifera,Ulva pertusa,Gracilaria lemaneiformis,and Codium fragile)was investigated.The results illustrated that both 17β-estradiol(E_(2))and 17α-ethinylestradiol(EE_(2))could be removed by the seaweeds at different levels,and the Caulerpa lentillifera was the most efficient one.More than 90%of E_(2) or EE_(2) at concentration of 10μg/L was removed by Caulerpa lentillifera within 12 h.Processes including initial quick biosorption,the following slow accumulation,and biodegradation might explain the removal mechanisms of E_(2)/EE_(2) by Caulerpa lentillifera.E_(2)/EE_(2) removal was positively related to the nutrient level and the initial concentration of steroid hormone.A significant linear relationship for E_(2) and EE_(2) existed between the initial pollutant concentration and the average removal rate.The highest removal kinetic constant(k)value was obtained at 30℃as 0.34/h for E_(2) and at 20℃as 0.28/h for EE_(2),demonstrating the promising application potential of Caulerpa lentillifera in the water purification of the industrialized mariculture system with relatively high water temperature.Simultaneous and efficient removal of E_(2) and EE_(2) by Caulerpa lentillifera was still achieved after 3 cycles in the pilot-scale experiment.The steroid hormones and nutrients in mariculture wastewater could also be simultaneously removed using Caulerpa lentillifera.These findings demonstrated that Caulerpa lentillifera was the promising seaweed for the removal of steroid hormones in mariculture systems.

Isolation and characterization of a bacterial strain that efficiently degrades sex steroid hormones

A bacterial strain,ZY3,growing on sex steroid hormones as the sole source of carbon and energy was isolated from the sewage treatment plant of a prophylactic steroids factory.ZY3 degrades the 3-methoxy-17b-hydroxy-1,3,5(10),8(9)-d-4-estren(MHE).This strain was preli-minarily identified as Raoultella sp.ZY3 according to its morphology and its 16S rRNA gene sequence.During the experimental period(72 h),the optimum temperature,pH and 3-MHE concentration for the degradation of hydride by the strain ZY3 were 35°C,10 and 10 mg/L,respectively.The degradation rate of the sex steroid hormones increased to 87%and 85% after the addition of maltose and peptone,respectively.

THE EVALUATION METHODS OF VELVET ANTLER AND THE DETERMINATION OF NUCLEOSIDES AND STEROID HORMONES IN DIFFERENT PARTS FROM SIKA DEER AND RED DEER

Velvet antler is an important and precious traditional Chinese animal medicine,and was used for strengthening the kidney,anti-fatigue,improving sexual function and so on.But the evaluation methods of velvet antler and the scientific evidence for the use of antler is insufficient.Materials and Vacuum freeze drier was used for dehydration of the fresh antler at-60.,6 pa for 24 h.

Gut microbiota contributes to the development of endometrial glands in gilts during the ovary-dependent period

Background:The hyper-prolificacy Meishan gilts achieved a superior endometrial gland development(EGD)than white crossbred gilts during the ovary-independent period(before 60 d of age).Then,the EGD continues under the management of ovary-derived steroid hormones that regulated by gut microbiota(after 60 d of age).However,whether Meishan gilts’superiority in EGD lasting to the ovary-dependent period(after 60 d of age)and the role of gut microbiota in this period both remain unclear.Methods:Meishan gilts and Landrace x Yorkshire(LxY)gilts were raised under the same housing and feeding conditions until sexual maturity and then we compared their EGD and gut microbiota.Meanwhile,we transplanted fecal microbiota from Meishan gilts to L×Y gilts to explore the role of gut microbiota in EGD.We sampled plasma every 3 weeks and collected the uterus,ovary,liver,and rectal feces after the sacrifice.We then determined the hormone concentrations and expressions of the EGD-related genes.We also profiled the gut microbiota using 16S rDNA sequencing and metabolites of plasma and liver tissue using untargeted metabolomics.Finally,the correlation analysis and significant test was conducted between FMT-shifted gut microbes and EGD-related indices.Results:Meishan gilts have larger endometrial gland area(P<0.001),longer uterine horn length(P<0.01)but lighter uterine horn weight(P<0.05),a distinctive gut microbiota compared with L×Y gilts.Fecal microbiota transplantation(FMT)increased endometrial gland area(P<0.01).FMT markedly shifted the metabolite profiles of both liver and plasma,and these differential metabolites enriched in steroid hormone biosynthesis pathway.FMT increased estradiol and insulin-like growth factor 1 but decreased progesterone dynamically.FMT also increased the expression of the EGD-related genes estrogen receptor 1 gene,epithelial cadherin,and forkhead box protein A2.There is a significant correlation between FMT-shifted gut microbes and EGD-related indices.Conclusion:Sexually matured Meishan gilts achieved a superior EGD than LxY gilts.Meanwhile,gut microbiota contribute to the EGD potentially via regulating of steroid hormones during the ovary-dependent period.

Accelerated Infliximab Induction for Severe Lower Gastrointestinal Bleeding in a Young Patient with Crohn’s Disease:A Case Report

BACKGROUND Severe lower gastrointestinal bleeding(SLGIB)is a rare complication of Crohn's disease(CD).The treatment of these patients is a clinical challenge.Monoclonal anti-TNFαantibody(IFX)can induce relatively fast mucosal healing.It has been reported for the treatment of SLGIB,but there are few reports on accelerated IFX induction in CD patients with SLGIB.CASE SUMMARY A 16-year-old boy with a history of recurrent oral ulcers for nearly 1 year presented to the Gastroenterology Department of our hospital complaining of recurrent periumbilical pain for more than 1 mo and having bloody stool 4 times within 2 wk.Colonoscopy showed multiple areas of inflammation of the colon and a sigmoid colon ulcer with active bleeding.Hemostasis was immediately performed under endoscopy.The physical examination of the patient showed scattered small ulcers in the lower lip of the mouth and small cracks in the perianal area.Combined with his medical history,physical examination,laboratory examinations with high C-reactive protein(CRP),platelet count(PLT),erythrocyte sedimentation rate(ESR)and fecal calprotectin levels,imaging examinations and pathology,a diagnosis of CD was taken into consideration.According to the pediatric CD activity index 47.5,methylprednisolone(40 mg QD)was given intravenously.The abdominal pain disappeared,and CRP,PLT,and ESR levels decreased significantly after the treatment.Unfortunately,he had a large amount of bloody stool again after 1 wk of methylprednisolone treatment,and his hemoglobin level decreased quickly.Although infliximab(IFX)(5 mg/kg)was given as a combination therapy regimen,he still had bloody stool with his hemoglobin level decreasing from 112 g/L to 80 g/L in a short time,so-called SLGIB.With informed consent,accelerated IFX(5 mg/kg)induction was given 7 days after initial presentation.The bleeding then stopped.Eight weeks after the treatment,repeat colonoscopy showed mucosal healing;thus far,no recurrent bleeding has occurred,and the patient is symptom-free.CONCLUSION This case highlights the importance of accelerated IFX induction in SLGIB secondary to CD,especially after steroid hormone treatment.

Is the DHEAS/cortisol ratio a potential filter for non-operable constipated cases?

Constipation is a significant manifestation of a number of psychological disorders.Published papers recommend using self-assessment questionnaires for discriminating psychological from non-psychological constipated patients before operating on them but reports from major surveys revealed that general practitioners failed to diagnose 70%of depressed patients using self-assessment questionnaires.Lower circulating concentrations of progesterone,17-hydroxyprogesterone,cortisol,testosterone,androstenedione,and dehydroepiandrostenedione sulfate(DHEAS) during the follicular phase in constipated young women compared with respective controls were found during the follicular phase of the menstrual cycles. During the luteal phase of the cycle,reductions were identified in estriol,cortisol and testosterone in the constipated group.Likewise,circulating concentrations of DHEAS were found to be lower in depressed patients than comparable healthy controls.DHEAS/cortisol ratios in morning serum and salivary samples were lower than those retrieved during other times of the day in depressed patients.The idea of recognizing major depression in constipated patients by measuring DHEAS/cortisol ratios in saliva and serum may be plausible but this possibility needs to be confirmed in well-designed studies.

miRNA sequencing analysis of healthy and atretic follicles of chickens revealed that miR-30a-5p inhibits granulosa cell death via targeting Beclin1

Background:The egg production performance of chickens is affected by many factors,including genetics,nutrition and environmental conditions.These factors all play a role in egg production by affecting the development of follicles.MicroRNAs(miRNAs)are important non-coding RNAs that regulate biological processes by targeting genes or other non-coding RNAs after transcription.In the animal reproduction process,miRNA is known to affect the development and atresia of follicles by regulating apoptosis and autophagy of granulosa cells(GCs).Results:In this study,we identified potential miRNAs in the atretic follicles of broody chickens and unatretic follicles of healthy chickens.We identified gga-miR-30a-5p in 50 differentially expressed miRNAs and found that gga-miR-30a-5p played a regulatory role in the development of chicken follicles.The function of miR-30a-5p was explored through the transfection test of miR-30a-5p inhibitor and miR-30a-5p mimics.In the study,we used qPCR,western blot and flow cytometry to detect granulosa cell apoptosis,autophagy and steroid hormone synthesis.Confocal microscopy and transmission electron microscopy are used for the observation of autophagolysosomes.The levels of estradiol(E2),progesterone(P4),malondialdehyde(MDA)and superoxide dismutase(SOD)were detected by ELISA.The results showed that miR-30a-5p showed a negative effect on autophagy and apoptosis of granulosa cells,and also contributed in steroid hormones and reactive oxygen species(ROS)production.In addition,the results obtained from the biosynthesis and dual luciferase experiments showed that Beclin1 was the target gene of miR-30a-5p.The rescue experiment conducted further confirmed that Beclin1 belongs to the miR-30a-5p regulatory pathway.Conclusions:In summary,after deep miRNA sequencing on healthy and atretic follicles,the results indicated that miR-30a-5p inhibits granulosa cell death by inhibiting Beclin1.

Ractopamine Hydrochloride and Estradiol + Trenbolone Acetate Implants Alter Myogenic mRNA, <i>β</i>-Adrenergic Receptors, and Blood Metabolites

Two commonly used growth promotants in the United States beef industry are β-agonists and anabolic steroid hormones. Each has been shown to increase lean muscle deposition in cattle provided treatments of each growth technology, but much is still unknown of how steroidal implants and β-agonists work in combination. It was our goal to determine the effect of implant strategy and β-agonist administration in beef feedlot heifers (n = 264). A 3 × 2 factorial randomized complete block design was used with 2 levels of OPT and 3 different durations of terminal implant (TI) windows for a total of 6 treatment groups with 9 replications. Terminal implants (20 mg estradiol/200 mg trenbolone acetate implant, Component TE-200) were provided to heifers 140 d from slaughter (TI140), 100 d from slaughter (TI100), or 60 d from slaughter (TI60). Animals receiving the later two TI being first implanted on day 0 (8 mg estradiol/80 mg trenbolone acetate implant, Component TE-IH). The second treatment of the cattle received was the orally active beta adrenergic agonist, ractopamine-hydrochloride (RH) in the form of Optaflexx®(OPT;0 (NO) or 200 (YES) mg/hd·d-1) over the final 28 days of the trial. Thirty animals were subjected to longissimus muscle (LM) biopsies on d 0, 40, 80, 112, and at slaughter on d 140 to view mRNA levels of myogenic related genes and protein quantities of the β1-adrenergic receptor (β1 AR) and β2-adrenergic receptor (β2 AR). On the same days, blood samples were taken from 108 animals to assess changes in plasma blood urea nitrogen (BUN), non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA) and progesterone due to treatments. Relative mRNA levels of myosin heavy chain IIX (MHC IIX), AMPKα, and IGF-I were increased (P < 0.05) in animals receiving a TI100 over the other two implant dates after OPT was fed to animals. After OPT administration myosin heavy chain IIA (MHC IIA) mRNA levels tended to decrease (P = 0.09) due to OPT. An interaction between TI d and OPT administration caused an increase (P < 0.05) in MHC IIA mRNA level in the TI60/Yes treatment group over all other treatments except the TI100/No treatment group. Protein intensity of the β2 AR was decreased (P < 0.05) by the latest TI d (TI60) during OPT feeding, while β1 AR protein intensity tended to be lower (P < 0.10) in animals fed OPT. Plasma BUN levels were reduced (P < 0.05) after terminal implants and OPT feeding;while progesterone was decreased (P < 0.05) by OPT alone. Neither growth promotant affected NEFA levels in plasma. Collectively, these data indicate that ractopamine hydrochloride and estradiol + trenbolone acetate implants alter myogenic mRNA, β-adrenergic receptors, and blood metabolites in finishing beef heifers.

High performance thin layer chromatography as an effective tool for rapid screening of 5α-reductase inhibitors

Benign prostatic hyperplasia(BPH)is a common disease in men,and is known to be related to 5α-reductase,which can affect steroid metabolism.Under the promotion of 5α-reductase,testosterone can be converted into dihydrotestosterone(DHT),and excessive DHT will cause related diseases.Since BPH seriously affects the quality of life of patients,it is essential to discover effective 5α-reductase inhibitors.In this study,the simple analytical method of high performance thin layer chromatography(HPTLC)was used to screen active compounds,and seven compounds with strong activity were screened out.This research will provide a reference for studying the material basis of drugs for the treatment of BPH.

The Development and Functional Regulation of the Fetal Adrenal Cortex

As an important endocrine organ of the human, the adrenal cortex is responsible for the synthesis of various steroids. It is important to maintain pregnancy, promote fetal growth and nervous system development. Moreover, it is also important for the growth and development of the fetus after birth. Abnormal functional development of the adrenal cortex will induce the abnormal synthesis of steroid hormones and trigger the occurrence of related diseases. In this review, we discuss the morphological and functional development of fetal adrenal cortex and its regulatory factors in humans and rodents.

Advances on hormone-like activity of Panax ginseng and ginsenosides

Traditional Chinese medicine(TCM)has been paid much attentions due to the prevention and treatment of steroid hormone disorders.Ginseng,the root of Panax ginseng C.A.Meyer(Araliaceae),is one of the most valuable herbs in complementary and alternative medicines around the world.A series of dammarane triterpenoid saponins,also known as phytosteroids,were reported as the primary ingredients of Ginseng,and indicated broad spectral pharmacological actions,including anti-cancer,anti-inflammation and anti-fatigue.The skeletons of the dammarane triterpenoid aglycone are structurally similar to the steroid hormones.Both in vitro and in vivo studies showed that Ginseng and its active ingredients have beneficial hormone-like role in hormonal disorders.This review thus summarizes the structural similarities between hormones and dammarane ginsenosides and integrates the analogous effect of Ginseng and ginsenosides on prevention and treatment of hormonal disorders published in recent twenty years(1998–2018).The review may provide convenience for anticipate structure-function relationship between saponins structure and hormone-like effect.