Ratio of Gravitational Force to Electric Force from Empirical Equations in Terms of the Cosmic Microwave Background Temperature

Previously, we presented several empirical equations using the cosmic microwave background (CMB) temperature. Next, we propose an empirical equation for the fine-structure constant. Considering the compatibility among these empirical equations, the CMB temperature (Tc) and gravitational constant (G) were calculated to be 2.726312 K and 6.673778 × 10−11 m3∙kg−1∙s−2, respectively. Every equation could be explained in terms of the Compton length of an electron (λe), the Compton length of a proton (λp) and a. Furthermore, every equation could also be explained in terms of Avogadro’s number and the number of electrons in 1 C. However, the ratio of the gravitational force to the electric force cannot be uniquely determined when the unit of the Planck constant (Js) is changed. In this study, we showed that every equation can be described in terms of Planck constant. From the assumption of minimum mass, the ratio of gravitational force to electric force could be elucidated.

Correspondence Principle for Empirical Equations in Terms of the Cosmic Microwave Background Temperature with Solid-State Ionics

Previously, we presented several empirical equations using the cosmic microwave background (CMB) temperature that were mathematically connected. Next, we proposed an empirical equation for the fine-structure constant. Considering the compatibility among these empirical equations, the CMB temperature (Tc) and gravitational constant (G) were calculated to be 2.726312 K and 6.673778 × 10-11 m3·kg-1·s-2, respectively. Every equation can be explained in terms of the Compton length of an electron (λe), the Compton length of a proton (λp) and α. However, these equations are difficult to follow. Using the correspondence principle with the thermodynamic principles in solid-state ionics, we propose a canonical ensemble to explain these equations in this report. For this purpose, we show that every equation can be explained in terms of Avogadro’s number and the number of electrons in 1 C.

The Origin of Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation

This paper explains the Olbers paradox and the origin of cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR) from the viewpoint of the quantum redshift effect. The derived formula dispels the Olbers paradox, confirming that the CMBR originates from the superposition of light radiated by stars in the whole universe, not the relic of the Big Bang. The dark-night sky and CMBR are all caused by Hubble redshift—the physical mechanism is the quantum redshift of the photon rather than cosmic expansion. So this theory supports the infinite and steady cosmology.

Various Empirical Equations for the Electromagnetic Force in Terms of the Cosmic Microwave Background Temperature

Previously, we proposed an empirical equation describing the relationship between the gravitational force and the temperature of the cosmic microwave background (CMB). After evaluating our equation, we discovered many empirical equations describing the electromagnetic force in terms of the CMB, including equations for the Rydberg constant, the Bohr radius, the Compton wavelength, the classical electron radius, the Hartree energy, the Coulomb’s law with distance, and the ratio between the gravitational force and electric force. The background theory is not yet complete. However, we can justify why the discovered empirical equations should not be coincidence.

How the Flat Space Cosmology Model Correlates the Recombination CMB Temperature of 3000 K with a Redshift of 1100

This paper shows how the Flat Space Cosmology model correlates the recom-bination epoch CMB temperature of 3000 K with a cosmological redshift of 1100. This proof is given in support of the recent publication that the Tatum and Seshavatharam Hubble temperature formulae can be derived using the Stephan-Boltzmann dispersion law. Thus, as explained herein, the era of high precision Planck scale quantum cosmology has arrived.

Explanation of the Necessity of the Empirical Equations That Relate the Gravitational Constant and the Temperature of the CMB

In previous papers, we proposed an empirical equation for the fine-structure constant. Using this equation, we proposed a refined version of our own former empirical equations about the electromagnetic force and gravity in terms of the temperature of the cosmic microwave background. The calculated values of the temperature of the cosmic microwave background (Tc) and the gravitational constant (G) were 2.726312 K and 6.673778 × 10-11 m3⋅kg-1⋅ s-2, respectively. Then, for the values of the factors 9/2 and π in our equations, we used 4.488519503 and 3.132011447, respectively. However, we could not provide a theoretical explanation for the necessity of these empirical equations. In this paper, using the redefinition method for the UNIT, we show the necessity for our empirical equations.

The Derivation of the Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation Peak Spectral Radiance, Planck Time, and the Hubble Constant from the Neutron and Hydrogen

Purpose: The cosmic microwave background radiation, CMB, is fundamental to observational cosmology, and is believed to be a remnant from the Big Bang. The CMB, Planck time, tP, and the Hubble constant, H0, are important cosmologic constants. The goal is to accurately derive and demonstrate the inter-relationships of the CMB peak spectral radiance frequency, tP, and H0 from neutron and hydrogen quantum data only. Methods: The harmonic neutron hypothesis, HNH, evaluates physical phenomena within a finite consecutive integer and exponential power law harmonic fraction series that are scaled by a fundamental frequency of the neutron as the exponent base. The CMB and the H0 are derived from a previously published method used to derive tP. Their associated integer exponents are respectively +1/2, −3/4, and −128/35. Results: Precise mathematical relationships of these three constants are demonstrated. All of the derived values are within their known observational values. The derived and known values are: νCMB, 160.041737 (06) × 109 Hz, ~160 × 109 Hz;2.72519 K, 2.72548 ± 0.00057 K, H0 2.29726666 (11) × 10−18 s−1, ~2.3 × 10−18 s−1;and tP 5.3911418 (3) × 10−44 s, 5.39106 (32) × 10−44 s. Conclusion: The cosmic fundamental constants tP, H0, and CMB are mathematically inter-related constants all defined by gravity. They are also directly derivable from the quantum properties of the neutron and hydrogen within a harmonic power law.

Possible Relations of Cosmic Microwave Background with Gravity and Fine-Structure Constant

Gravity is the only force that cannot be explained by the Standard Model (SM), the current best theory describing all the known fundamental particles and their forces. Here we reveal that gravitational force can be precisely given by mass of objects and microwave background (CMB) radiation. Moreover, using the same strategy we reveal a relation by which CMB can also precisely define fine-structure constant α.

Cosmic microwave background constraints on the tensor-to-scalar ratio

One of the main goals of modern cosmic microwave background(CMB)missions is to measure the tensor-to-scalar ratio r accurately to constrain inflation models. Due to ignorance about the reionization history Xe(z), this analysis is usually done by assuming an instantaneous reionization Xe(z) which, however, can bias the best-fit value of r. Moreover, due to the strong mixing of B-mode and E-mode polarizations in cut-sky measurements, multiplying the sky coverage fraction fskyby the full-sky likelihood would not give satisfactory results. In this work, we forecast constraints on r for the Planck mission taking into account the general reionization scenario and cut-sky effects. Our results show that by applying an N-point interpolation analysis to the reionization history, the bias induced by the assumption of instantaneous reionization is removed and the value of r is constrained within 5% error level, if the true value of r is greater than about 0.1.

The Speed of Light Is Not Constant in Basic Big Bang Theory

Starting from the basic assumptions and equations of Big Bang theory, we present a simple mathematical proof that this theory implies a varying (decreasing) speed of light, contrary to what is generally accepted. We consider General Relativity, the first Friedmann equation and the Friedmann-Lema?tre- Robertson-Walker (FLRW) metric for a Comoving Observer. It is shown explicitly that the Horizon and Flatness Problems are solved, taking away an important argument for the need of Cosmic Inflation. A decrease of 2.1 cm/s per year of the present-day speed of light is predicted. This is consistent with the observed acceleration of the expansion of the Universe, as determined from high-redshift supernova data. The calculation does not use any quantum processes, and no adjustable parameters or fine tuning are introduced. It is argued that more precise laboratory measurements of the present-day speed of light (and its evolution) should be carried out. Also it is argued that the combination of the FLRW metric and Einstein’s field equations of General Relativity is inconsistent, because the FLRW metric implies a variable speed of light, and Einstein’s field equations use a constant speed of light. If we accept standard Big Bang theory (and thus the combination of General Relativity and the FLRW metric), a variable speed of light must be allowed in the Friedmann equation, and therefore also, more generally, in Einstein’s field equations of General Relativity. The explicit form of this time dependence will then be determined by the specific problem.

The local contribution to the microwave background radiation

The observed microwave background radiation(MBR)is commonly interpreted as the relic of an early hot universe,and its observed features(spectrum and anisotropy)are explained in terms of properties of the early universe.Here we describe a complementary,even possibly alternative,interpretation of MBR,first proposed in the early 20thcentury,and adapt it to modern observations.For example,the stellar Hipparcos data show that the energy density of starlight from the Milky Way,if suitably thermalized,yields a temperature of～2.81 K.This and other arguments given here strongly suggest that the origin of MBR may lie,at least in a very large part,in re-radiation of thermalized galactic starlight.The strengths and weaknesses of this alternative radical explanation are discussed.

Reconstruction of Gas Temperature and Density Profiles of the Galaxy Cluster RX J1347.5–1145

We use observations of Sunyaev-Zel'dovich effect and X-ray surface brightness to reconstruct the radial profiles of gas temperature and density under the assumption of a spherically symmetric distribution of the gas.The method of reconstruction,first raised by Silk & White,depends directly on the observations of the Sunyaev-Zel'dovich effect and the X-ray surface brightness,without involving additional assumptions such as the equation of state of the gas or the conditions of hydrostatic equilibrium.We applied this method to the cluster RX J1347.5-1145,which has both the Sunyaev-Zel'dovich effect and X-ray observa-tions with relative high precision.It is shown that it will be an effective method to obtain the gas distribution in galaxy clusters.Statistical errors of the derived temperature and density profiles of gas were estimated according to the observational uncertainties.

A special kind of local structure in the CMB intensity maps: duel peak structure

We study the local structure of Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) tem- perature maps released by the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) team, and find a new kind of structure, which can be described as follows: a peak (or valley) of average temperature is often followed by a peak of temperature fluctuation that is 4 ° away. This structure is important for the following reasons: both the well known cold spot detected by Cruz et al. and the hot spot detected by Vielva et al. with the same technology (the third spot in their article) have such structure; more spots that are similar to them can be found on CMB maps and they also tend to be significant cold/hot spots; if we change the 4° characteristic into an artificial one, such as 3° or 5°, there will be less "similar spots", and the temperature peaks or valleys will be less significant. The presented "sim- ilar spots" have passed a strict consistency test which requires them to be significant on at least three different CMB temperature maps. We hope that this article could arouse some interest in the relationship of average temperature with temperature fluctuation in local areas; meanwhile, we are also trying to find an explanation for it which might be important to CMB observation and theory.

On the Possibility of Describing the Origin of the Big Bang According to the Hypothesis of Primary Particles

In this paper, we have determined the basic physical quantities that describe the very formation of the Big Bang using hypothetical primary particles, in accordance with our Hypothesis of primary particles, as well as with the logically observed smallest increment of speed that can exist, the “speed quantum”. According to the Hypothesis of primary particles, they exist in their basic, dynamic state, in their own flat spacetime, moving mutually at speeds much higher than the speed of light in a vacuum. Hence, a certain probability of a collision among these hypothetical particles exists, during which one of them would be abruptly decelerated to a speed greater than the border speed in our Universe, c, by a speed quantum, εu. As shown in this Hypothesis, such deceleration would increase the energy and the momentum of this particle immensely, so that in a very short period of time, they could tunnel into our Universe through the Big Bang, creating our total energy as well as our spacetime. With this theoretical consideration, we determined the power released during the Big Bang itself, the time period during which it took place, and its radius: PB≈1.63×10183W, tB≈9.51×10-114s and rB≈2.85×10-105m. Evidently, this approach allowed us to theoretically push the boundaries for the description of this singularity to values lesser than the Planck time and the Planck length. We expect that the results for the initial singularity itself will allow a more detailed study of the Big Bang.

On the Possibility of Variable Speed of Light in Vacuum

We previously revealed a quantitative relation by which the fine-structure constant α can be described by the temperature T of cosmic microwave background (CMB) with several other fundamental constants, including the elementary charge e, the Boltzmann constant k, the Planck constant h, and the light of speed in vacuum c. Given that the value of α is quite conserved but T is variable across CMBs, we propose that c changes with T and can be given by T, the present CMB temperature T0 and the present light speed c0. As T is continuously decreasing, c is thus predicted to decrease at a rate of ~2.15 centimeters/second (cm/s) per year. Moreover, we provide a lot of evidence to support this finding. In conclusion, this study suggests a possibility of variable speed of light in vacuum.

Hypersphere World-Universe Model: Evolution of the World

The main objective of this paper is to discuss the Evolution of a 3D Finite World (that is a Hypersphere of a 4D Nucleus of the World) from the Beginning up to the present Epoch in frames of World-Universe Model (WUM). WUM is the only cosmological model in existence that is consistent with the Law of Conservation of Angular Momentum. To be consistent with this Fundamental Law, WUM introduces Dark Epoch (spanning from the Beginning of the World for 0.45 billion years) when only Dark Matter (DM) Macroobjects (MOs) existed, and Luminous Epoch (ever since for 13.77 billion years) when Luminous MOs emerged due to Rotational Fission of Overspinning DM Superclusters’ Cores and self-annihilation of Dark Matter Particles (DMPs). WUM envisions that DM is created by the Universe in the 4D Nucleus of the World. Dark Matter Particles (DMPs) carry new DM into the 3D Hypersphere World. Luminous Matter is a byproduct of DMPs self-annihilation. By analogy with 3D ball, which has two-dimensional sphere surface (that has surface energy), we can imagine that the 3D Hypersphere World has a “Surface Energy” of the 4D Nucleus. WUM solves a number of physical problems in contemporary Cosmology and Astrophysics through DMPs and their interactions: Angular Momentum problem in birth and subsequent evolution of Galaxies and Extrasolar systems—how do they obtain it;Fermi Bubbles—two large structures in gamma-rays and X-rays above and below Galactic center;Missing Baryon problem related to the fact that the observed amount of baryonic matter did not match theoretical predictions. WUM reveals Inter-Connectivity of Primary Cosmological Parameters and calculates their values, which are in good agreement with the latest results of their measurements. In 2013, WUM predicted the values of the following Cosmological parameters: gravitational, concentration of intergalactic plasma, and the minimum energy of photons, which were experimentally confirmed in 2015-2018. “The Discovery of a Supermassive Compact Object at the Centre of Our Galaxy” (Nobel Prize in Physics 2020) made by Prof. R. Genzel and A. Ghez is a confirmation of one of the most important predictions of WUM in 2013: “Macroobjects of the World have cores made up of the discussed DM particles. Other particles, including DM and baryonic matter, form shells surrounding the cores”.

The interpretation of the CMBR

In the popular ACDM model,the cosmic microwave background radiation(CMBR)is thought to be the remnant of the early hot universe.An important precondition of this interpretation of CMBR is:after the last scattering surface formed,the high temperature ionized gases in the universe became low temperature neutral gases and so the universe has been completely transparent to the radiation which comes from the hot early universe.However,observations show that today most gases in the universe are still in a high temperature ionized state.The universe is not completely transparent to the radiation which comes from the hot early universe.According to the famous Sunyaev-Zeldovich effect,if the CMBR comes from the early hot universe and follows a perfect blackbody spectrum,the free electrons in the cosmic plasma will distort the perfect blackbody spectrum of the CMBR.In this case,the observed CMBR cannot be of a perfect blackbody spectrum.This is a fatal flaw in the interpretation of CMBR using the ACDM model.In order to overcome this fatal flaw,in this paper it is proposed that in the ACDM model frame,a better interpretation of CMBR is:The CMBR is a thermal equilibrium product between the high temperature ionized gases and the cosmic radiation field in the local universe space.

From the Beginning of the World to the Beginning of Life on Earth

Hypersphere World-Universe Model (WUM) is, in fact, a Paradigm Shift in Cosmology [1]. In this paper, we provide seven Pillars of WUM: Medium of the World;Inter-Connectivity of Primary Cosmological Parameters;Creation of Matter;Multicomponent Dark Matter;Macroobjects;Volcanic Rotational Fission;Dark Matter Reactors. We describe the evolution of the World from the Beginning up to the birth of the Solar System and discuss the condition of the Early Earth before the beginning of life on it.

Modeling the WMAP large-angle anomalies as an effect of a local density inhomogeneity

We investigate large-angle scale temperature anisotropy in the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) with the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) data and model the large-angle anomalies as the effect of the CMB quadrupole anisotropies caused by the local density inhomogeneities. The quadrupole caused by the local density inhomogeneities is different from the special relativity kinematic quadrupole. If the observer inhabits a strong inhomogeneous region, the local quadrupole should not be neglected. We calculate such local quadrupole under the assumption that there is a huge density fluctuation field in the direction (284-, 74-), where the density fluctuation is 10-3 , and its center is ～ 112 h-1 Mpc away from us. After removing such mock signals from WMAP data, the power in the quadrupole, C 2 , increases from the range (200 ～ 260 μK 2 ) to ～ 1000 μK 2 . The quantity S, which is used to estimate the alignment between the quadrupole and the octopole, decreases from (0.7 ～ 0.74) to (0.31 ～ 0.37), while the model predicts that C 2 = 1071.5 μK 2 , and S = 0.412. So our local density inhomogeneity model can, in part, explain the WMAP low-anomalies.

Flat Space Cosmology as a Model of Penrose’s Weyl Curvature Hypothesis and Gravitational Entropy

FSC is shown to be an excellent model of Penrose’s Weyl curvature hypothesis and his concept of gravitational entropy. The assumptions of FSC allow for the minimum entropy at the inception of the cosmic expansion and rigorously define a cosmological arrow of time. This is in sharp contrast to inflationary models, which appear to violate the second law of thermodynamics within the early universe. Furthermore, by virtue of the same physical assumptions applying at any cosmic time t, the perpetually-flat FSC model predicts the degree of scale invariance observed in the CMB anisotropy pattern, without requiring an explosive and exceedingly brief inflationary epoch. Penrose’s concepts, as described in this paper, provide support for the idea that FSC models gravitational entropy and Verlinde’s emergent gravity theory.