Comparison of Using an Electronic System and Conventional Monitoring Method for Monitoring the Quality of Drinking Water and Defects Discovery in Rural Area Water Distribution Network of Abarkouh, Iran

The used water for human consumption must be free of microorganisms and chemicals that cause risk in the human health. In this study, water quality of 18 rural area of Abarkouh was determined and compared the conventional monitoring method (According to ISIR (Institute of Standards and Industrial Research of Iran), 1053 and 4208) and use of electronic system method (Patent in industrial property general office of Iran, 77815). Free chlorine monitoring and pH test done by health workers in the conventional method and the results will be sent to the Health Network monthly. Sampling for microbiological testing is done monthly based on population (According to ISIR, 4208). On the electronic system, the procedure is also done by health workers, but the result will be sent to the receiver device by using a cell phone. According to the chlorine test results if the free chlorine residual reported zero, microbiological sampling was done by a health expert. Finally, the number of chlorine test and microbiological sampling and the results of these experiments collected in the both methods and recorded in SPSS 22 then were analyzed by using chi-square test and Fisher exact test. The result of microbiological experiments shows that the sampling rate decreased 29% in using of electronic system method in comparison to the conventional monitoring method while the number of microbial defect detection increased 19% in drinking water networks monitoring by electronic system. Using of electronic system monitoring can reduce the rate and cost of microbiological sampling and its experiments and increase accuracy of these tests, in this way it will increase the quality and safety of drinking water in distribution network in small and dispersed rural communities.

A Study on the Microbial Quality of Drinking Water in Rural Areas of Mazandaran Province in North of Iran (2011)

Backgrounds: One of the fundamental needs of a community is to have an access to healthy and safe drinking water. The lack of a concentrated accessibility to health facilities and services is among the serious problems facing villagers in the rural areas. The aims of this research was to investigate the drinking water quality of the villages in Babol township suburbs in north of Iran. Materials and Methods: In this cross-sectional descriptive study, a total of 140 water samples were taken from the water distribution network in16 villages for the low and high-rain seasons in sterile glass bottle. The microbial quality of gathered samples were determined based on standard methods in laboratory. Statistical analysis of the results was performed using a SPSS16 statistical software. Findings: Based on obtained results 13.6% of the samples were contaminated to coliform and 20% to fecal coliform bacteria. The residual chlorine in 12.5% of the samples were between 0.2 to 0.8 mg·L-1 and the PH in total samples were between 6.8 to 7.8. There were no signs of any contamination for 32.86% of the analysed samples which water resources is located to a distance of more than 30 m to the contamination sources. In addition, 43.1% of the samples taken from the water resources with no plumbing system, have had a fecal contamination. Conclusions: Considering the results achieved, the microbial quality of the drinking water of the studied villages classified as “moderate” status. For more water supply there is not sufficient residual chlorine in most cases. Poor sanitation of water supply is most causes of water contamination. It is therefore strongly recommended that sanitation measures are made to protect water resources from the contamination.

Quality and Method of Management of Drinking Water in Rural Areas in Benin: Case of Artesian Drills of Dogbo Ahomey in the Borough of Tota, Municipality of Dogbo

The objective of this study is to assess the quality of the artesian borehole water consumed by the population of the village of Dogbo Ahomey in order to prevent pathologies on the populations. Methodology and Results: The household surveys were supplemented by a campaign to analyze the water samples in the laboratory. The samples were analyzed according to the standardized methods of the American Public Health Association (APHAAWWA-WPCF, 1994). A total of twenty (20) physico-chemical parameters and four (04) microbiological parameters were used to assess the quality of the different water samples. The results of the physico-chemical analysis showed that the water samples studied present values that are below the standards recommended by the WHO and by the Beninese standards for the quality of drinking water (Standards, 2001). From a microbiological analysis point of view, of the four samples studied, two show strong pollution by germs. This could be a significant health risk for households who take water from these sources to meet their needs.

Rural Water Supply Management and Sustainability: The Case of Adama Area, Ethiopia

Wise utilization of water resources is becoming very important as world faces water crises. The main objective of this study was to investigate the rural water supply systems with case study in Adama area, in central Ethiopia. Both quantitative and qualitative data were collected and analyzed. Four sample water schemes were selected and totally 148 (63 were female) representative households were selected for answering the questionnaires. Key informant interviews and group discussions were also conducted. The study assessed issues such as community participation, water committee empowerment, management and governance of water supply schemes, women participation, functional status of water supply scheme, sanitation and hygiene issues, external support, and monitoring system of water supply schemes. The findings indicated that the community participation in planning and implementation was very good while monitoring mechanism of operation and management as well as community participation on choice of technology was poor. The water schemes were located at reasonable distances i.e. less than 2 km in most cases and the time taken for round trip to fetch water from source was less than or equal to 30 minutes in most cases, however the queuing time was more than an hour. The water supply was inadequate as only about 15% of beneficiaries could get 20 liters of water per day per capita. The water sources were exposed in many cases to human waste, wild life, livestock and uncontrolled flooding. Sanitary practices in the study area were poor as only about 3.4% had ventilated and improved pit latrine and open pit and/or open field defecation were widely practiced.

Research on the Risk Associated with Rural Drinking Water Safety Based on Catastrophe Theory

In this study, based on the analysis of the catastrophic risk of rural drinking water, with the representative villages in Ya’an as study objects and setting the four evaluation standards: water quality, water quantity, the Guarantee Probability for water Supply and the Convenience Level of the Access to Water Supply as the ba- sic framework, a Rural Drinking Water Safety Assessment was developed (RDWSA). Research showed that Catastrophe Theory was applicable in the RDWSA. Adding RDWSA based on Catastrophe Theory to the supportive system for decision-making in Ecological Hydrographic Management Decision Support System of Ya’an helped obtain the rank and results of RDWSE by the automatic calculation of programs, which could assist the risk assessment and risk management associated with rural drinking water in Ya’an.

Legislation on protection of drinking water sources and local management practices in the Pearl River Delta region of China

The protection of drinking water sources is vital to urban development and public health.In this study,the current situation of the mandatory protection area for drinking water source in the Pearl River Delta region was investigated using a method combining Google Earth with the field survey.The gaps between management practices and legislation requirements were analyzed.Finally,several countermeasures for water resource protection were proposed as follows:to promote delineation in a more scientific way,to safeguard the sanctity of the law,to make better plan on water saving,and to encourage public participation in supervision and management.

Protection Planning for Rural Centralized Drinking Water Source Areas in Chongqing

Protection planning is made for rural centralized drinking water source areas according to current situations of rural drinking water and existing problems of centralized drinking water source areas in Chongqing,and in combination with survey,analysis and evaluation of urban-rural drinking water source areas in whole city.There are engineering measures and non-engineering measures,to guarantee drinking water security of rural residents,improve rural ecological environment,realize sustainable use of water resource,and promote sustainable development of society.Engineering measures include conservation and protection of water resource,ecological restoration,isolation,and comprehensive control of pointsource and area-source pollution.Non-engineering measures include construction of monitoring system for drinking water source area,construction of security information system for rural centralized drinking water source area,and construction of emergency mechanism for water pollution accidents in rural water source areas.

Construction of Rural Grass-roots Water Conservancy Service System in the Context of Institutional Changes

At present,it is urgent to solve problems of reforming and improving grass-roots water conservancy management mode in rural areas and improving rural water conservancy public service ability. Through analyzing institutional changes of grass-roots water conservancy management in rural areas,this paper discussed current situations and outstanding problems in grass-roots water conservancy services in rural areas of Kunming City. On the basis of current situations and problems,it came up with policy recommendations from reform of management institutions,reform of personnel system,construction of human resources,development of rural water use cooperation organizations,and improvement of fund input mechanism,to build rural grass-roots water conservancy service system.

Renewable Energy Powered Membrane Process for Removal of Excess Fluoride Ions and Safe Drinking Water Supply in Rural Areas in Senegal

The analysis results made on drinking water from the rural areas of Kaolack,Diourbel and Fatick central region of Senegal showed the excess of fluoride and chloride ions.Depending on the area,the fluoride concentration in the water can reach 3.5 mg/L.The values obtained are completely above of WHO(World Health Organization)limits.The objective of this study is to assess the performances of membrane filtration units powered by renewable energies for fluoride and salinity excess removal in remote village in Senegal.Many membrane filtration units have been installed in rural areas of regions such as Kaolack,Fatick and Diourbel.These membrane filtration units are equipped by the LPRO(Low Pressure Reverse Osmosis)membranes with 9 m^(2)of surface.A rejection rate of fluoride and chloride ions obtained is 99.33%and 95.25%respectively.The conversion rates are ranged from 45%to 65%.These results clearly show that membrane processes can be used in Africa,especially in isolated rural areas,with the combination of renewable energies.Currently,more than twenty membrane filtration units are installed in Senegal and provide drinking water of very good quality for populations living in rural areas.The prospect is to expand it on a larger scale,which is already underway,with the construction of a desalination plant in Dakar.

Discussion on Anti-Seepage Technologies in the Construction of Small-Scale Rural Water Conservancy Projects

In order to ensure the sustainable growth of rural economy,it is necessary to carry out further research on small-scale water conservancy projects and solve the seepage issue in rural areas.Based on the application significance of small-scale rural water conservancy projects and the analysis of anti-seepage technologies,along with specific examples,this paper specifically discusses the application of high-pressure jet technology,so as to provide reference for the development of engineering construction.

Riparian habitat quality as an indicator of land use/land cover effects on riverine water quality

Riparian land use/land cover(LULC)plays a crucial role in maintaining riverine water quality by altering the transport of pollutants and nutrients.Nevertheless,establishing a direct relationship between water quality and LULC is challenging due to the multi-indicator nature of both factors.Water quality encompasses a multitude of physical,chemical,and biological parameters,while LULC represents a diverse array of land use types.Riparian habitat quality(RHQ)serves as an indicator of LULC.Yet,it remains to be seen whether RHQ can act as a proxy of LULC for assessing the impact of LULC on riverine water quality.This study examines the interplay between RHQ,LULC and water quality,and develops a comprehensive indicator to predict water quality.We measured several water quality parameters,including pH(potential of hydrogen),TN(total nitrogen),TP(total phosphorus),T_(water)(water temperature),DO(dissolved oxygen),and EC(electrical conductivity)of the Yue and Jinshui Rivers draining to the Han River during 2016,2017 and 2018.The water quality index(WQI)was further calculated.RHQ is assessed by the InVEST(Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Tradeoffs)model.Our study found noticeable seasonal differences in water quality,with a higher WQI observed in the dry season.The RHQ was strongly correlated with LULC compositions.RHQ positively correlated with WQI,and DO concentration and vegetation land were negatively correlated with T_(water),TN,TP,EC,cropland,and construction land.These correlations were stronger in the rainy season.Human-dominated land,such as construction land and cropland,significantly contributed to water quality degradation,whereas vegetation promoted water quality.Regression models showed that the RHQ explained variations in WQI better than LULC types.Our study concludes that RHQ is a new and comprehensive indicator for predicting the dynamics of riverine water quality.

Health Risk Assessment on Rural Drinking Water Safety —A Case Study in Rain City District of Ya’an City of Sichuan Province

Taking Rain City District of Ya’an for example, this paper based on ComGIS (Component Object Model Geographic Information System) platform takes comprehensive and systematic detection on the exposure dose of chemical carcinogens and non-carcinogens from drinking water sources in this region and discusses health risk assessment of single factor and the whole health risk assessment. As, Hg, Cr, Pb, Cd and fluorides in some drinking water sources of Rain City District are analyzed according to Standards For Drinking Wa-ter Quality (GB5749-2006). A health risk assessment model called USEPA is also applied to drinking water health risk assessment and management countermeasure is proposed. The results show that the greatest health risk for individual person per year is caused by Cr(VI). The health risk of carcinogens is much higher than that of non-carcinogens: the greatest risk value due to non-carcinogen pollutants is caused by fluoride (F), achieving 1.05×10-8/a. The ranking of risk values due to non-carcinogen pollutants by drinking water is Pb>fluoride (F)>Hg, within Pb accounting for 44.77%, fluo-ride (F) accounting for 34.30% and Hg accounting for 20.92%. The average individual carcinogenesis annual risk of Cr(VI) is the greatest, achieving 8.91×10-4/a. The ranking of risk value due to chemical carcinogen by rural drinking water of Ya’an is Cr6+>As>Cd, within Cr6+ accounting for 91.12%, As accounting for 5.89% and Cd accounting for 3.00%. Based on this, the strategy and measures of the health risk management are put forward. This study has worked efficiently in practice. Compared with the same kind of methods which have been found, the paper has the outstanding results for the health risk assessment of the rural drinking water safety.

ComGIS-Based Early Warning System of Rural Drinking Water Safety in Ya’an City of Sichuan, China

According to characteristic index of spatial-temporal variability of rural drinking water safety in Ya’an City of Sichuan, China, such as water quantity, water quality, convenience degree and guaranteed rate, etc., this study elaborated the basic framework, model’s methodology structure in early warning system of rural drinking water safety on the basis of ComGIS and initially designed information collection, search and re-trieval, evaluation and analysis of factors, dynamic prediction and dynamic early-warning and functions of guidance and management in this system. The design of this system provided scientific basis to grasp the state of rural drinking water safety timely, release early warning information and properly take necessary control measures, etc. The evaluation results showed that the overall trend was getting better. It proved that the rising pressure value and response value were main reasons which caused the rising evaluation value of rural drinking water safety.

Current Situation and Countermeasures of Water Body Pollution in Rural Areas of China

At present, people＇s environmental awareness gradually enhances, and the environmental requirements on production and living continuously improve. Urban sewage discharge management and sewage treatment intensity are increasing in whole country, and urban water environment has certain improvement. But in rural areas, due to relatively weak environmental awareness of residents, not high economic development degree and not perfect infrastructure construction, the issue has not been handled properly. It seriously restricts further development of rural economy, and contradiction between water pollution worsening and farmers eager to raise the level of living environment increasingly aggravating has become key problem restricting China＇s new rural construction. According to status quo of rural water pollution in China, causes and hazards of rural water pollu- tion are analyzed in detail, and several treatment suggestions are put forward.

Design of Water Disinfection Scheme for Rural Drinking Water Safety Project

As further promotion of the rural drinking water safety project in whole country, small villages in vast countryside have been or will be equipped with safety drinking water project. We analyzed necessity of the rural drinking water disinfection, discussed disinfection method suitable for rural drinking water characteristics, and put forward disinfection schemes for different water supply sources.

Evaluation Model of Rural Drinking Water Project Based on Entropy Weight and Fuzzy Comprehensive Evaluation Method

Based on Measures for Assessment of Rural Drinking Water Standard Raising Action in Zhejiang Province,this study established an evaluation system for rural drinking water project in Zhejiang Province,covering three primary indicators of project construction,project management and project performance,and 18 secondary indicators.It proposed an evaluation model based on entropy weight and fuzzy evaluation method.It solved the problems of the objectivity of the indicator weight and the quantification of the indicators,and can well achieve the coordination and unity of fuzziness and accuracy.Using this model,it evaluated a rural drinking water project in a county and concluded that both accuracy and feasibility of the model are high.

Analysis and Discussion on Property Right of Rural Drinking Water Projects

Since rural drinking water projects have diversified investment subjects,complex form,and lacks property right system and policy at national level,there are many difficulties in determining property right of projects in many areas.This not only puzzles competent authorities and specific management institution,but also is unfavorable for long-term full play of project benefit.Combining related laws,regulations,and policies,this paper analyzed and discussed property right of rural drinking water projects.It proposed establishing usufructuary right to replace division of property right,in the hope of helping improve management of rural drinking water projects.

Water Pollution Situation and Impacts in Rural China

With the development of national economics, water pollution is becoming a critical problem in rural China. This research presented a brief view of water pollution situation in rural areas of China in terms of water shortage, water-pollutant sources, eutrophication of water bodies and pollution development in temporal scale. Analysis was conducted on the negative effects of water pollution on human health, agricultural plantation and animal husbandry. Subsequently, some suggestions were proposed for wastewater treatment in rural areas.

Analysis of Rural Water Pollution Sources of Lushui Reservoir in Hubei Province

Pollution resulting from increased human activities is threatening the drinking water quality in China.Lushui Reservoir was selected as a typical example to represent polluted drinking water sources with rapid social economic development.This study analyzed the pollution load of Lushui Reservoir from rural areas by estimating the chemical oxygen demand(COD),ammonia nitrogen,total nitrogen and total phosphorus contributed by domestic sewage,agricultural activity,livestock breeding and aquaculture activity.Results show that the annual chemical oxygen demand,ammonia nitrogen,total nitrogen and total phosphorus loads in Lushui Reservoir were 180.44,22.99,33.15,and 3.99 t,respectively.The highest contribution to pollution load in all four aspects is domestic sewage,which was 89%,96%,82%,and 79%,respectively.Therefore,policies for sustainable development in the region should be directed primarily towards a reduction of domestic pollution.

The Distribution and Accretion of Some Heavy Metals in Makkah Wells

The aim of this study is to determine the types of heavy metals frequently present in Makkah wells and the possible environmental causes of their distribution and accumulation. Makkah lies in a mountain range dominated by different types of rocks from the Precambrian and Lower Paleozoic eras, as well as subordinate sedimentary rocks and basaltic lava flow from the Tertiary and Quaternary periods. Natural contaminants in Makkah wells water can be attributed to the unique location. Many epidemiological studies have identified associations between the ingestion of wells water contaminated with heavy metals and increased risk of some illnesses. This study presents exclusive information on the levels and distribution of 9 heavy metals—arsenic, barium, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, copper, lead, mercury, and selenium—in the wells water in various rural and urban areas of Makkah city. These naturally occurring elements are considered significant markers of water purity. More than 160 wells were involved in this three-year investigation. Water samples were collected during different seasons in order to assess any changes in the distribution and concentration of these heavy metals throughout the year. The collected water samples were filtered and digested before analysis using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP/MS). We found the following sequence of concentrations of heavy metals in the studied wells: Ba > Se >Cr > As > Co > Cu> Hg > Pb > Cd. Arsenic, barium, chromium, and selenium were the most abundant contaminants in the wells studied. The concentrations of the other heavy metals ranged from non-detectable to 3 μg/L. Although low, these values are also reported in comparisons with the local and international strict values and standards which govern the maximum contaminant levels permitted for long-term daily consumption.