Geophysical Reactions to Remote 2022 Tonga Eruption and to Türkiye Earthquakes in Georgia (Caucasus): Hydrogeology, Geomagnetics and Seismicity

The paper is devoted to analysis of hydrogeological, geomagnetic and seismic response to the two great remote geophysical events, 2022 Tonga volcano eruption and 2020-2023 Türkiye earthquakes in Georgia (Caucasus). The geophysical observation system in Georgia, namely, water level stations in the network of deep wells, atmospheric pressure and the geomagnetic sensors of the Dusheti Geophysical Observatory (DGO) as well as seismic data in Garni Observatory (Armenia) respond to the Tonga event by anomalies in the time series. These data show that there are two types of respond: infrasound disturbances in atmospheric pressure and seismic waves in the Earth generated by the eruption. After Tonga eruption January 15 at 04:21 UTC three groups of N-shaped waveforms were registered in the water level corresponding to the global propagation characteristics of the N-shaped waveform of infrasound signals on the barograms generated by eruption at the distance ~15,700 km: they were identified as the Lamb wave, a surface wave package running in the atmosphere with a velocity around ~314 m/s. The paper also presents the WL reactions to three strong EQs that occur in Türkiye 2020-2023, namely Elazığ, Van and Türkiye-Syria EQs. WL in Georgian well network reacts to these events by anomalies of different intensity, which points to the high sensitivity of hydrosphere to remote (several hundred km) strong EQs. The intensity and character of WL reactions depend strongly on the local hydrogeological properties of rocks, surrounding the well.

Intra-trench variations in flexural bending of the subducting Pacific Plate along the Tonga-Kermadec Trench

We conducted a detailed analysis of along-trench variations in the flexural bending of the subducting Pacific Plate at the Tonga-Kermadec Trench.Inversions were conducted to obtain best-fitting solutions of trench-axis loadings and variations in the effective elastic plate thickness for the analyzed flexural bending profiles.Results of the analyses revealed significant along-trench variations in plate flexural bending:the trench relief(W0)of 1.9 to 5.1 km;trench-axis vertical loading(V0)of-0.5×10^12 to 2.2×10^12 N/m;axial bending moment(M0)of 0.1×10^17 to 2.2×10^17 N;effective elastic plate thickness seaward of the outer-rise region(Te^M)of 20 to 65 km,trench-ward of the outer-rise(Te^M)of 11 to 33 km,and the transition distance(Xr)of 20 to 95 km.The Horizon Deep,the second greatest trench depth in the world,has the greatest trench relief(W0 of 5.1km)and trench-axis loading(V0 of 2.2×10^12N/m);these values are only slightly smaller than that of the Challenger Deep(W0 of 5.7km and V0 of 2.9×10^12N/m)and similar to that of the Sirena Deep(W0 of 5.2 km and V0 of 2.0×10^12 N/m)of the Mariana Trench,suggesting that these deeps are linked to great flexural bending of the subducting plates.Analyses using three independent methods,i.e.,the/inversion,the flexural curvature/yield strength envelope analysis,and the elasto-plastic bending model with normal faults,all yielded similar average Te reduction of 28%-36% and average Te reduction area S△Te of 1195-1402 km^2 near the trench axis.The calculated brittle yield zone depth from the flexural curvature/yield strength envelope analysis is also consistent with the distribution of the observed normal faulting earthquakes.Comparisons of the Manila,Philippine,Tonga-Kermadec,Japan,and Mariana Trenches revealed that the average values Te^M of Te^M and both in general increase with the subducting plate age.

Control of subduction rate on Tonga-Kermadec arc magmatism

Dehydration/melting of oceanic crusts during returning to the mantle in subduction zones are related to origin of arc lavas. The factors that influence arc magmatism include compositions of the subducting slabs, mantle wedge and subduction rates. However, distinguishing these factors remains difficult and highly debated. Subducting rate is related to the total mass of inputs and controls thermal structure, thus plays a crucial role in arc magmatism. Here we explore the relationships between geochemical variations of arc lavas and convergence rates(increasing from 46 mm/a to the south to 83 mm/a to the northward) in the Tonga-Kermadec arc system. Data of geochemistry for lava samples from nine islands of this arc system are collected and compiled to investigate the role of subduction rate in arc magmatism. Lavas from the northern Tonga arc with a faster subduction rate show broadly lower concentrations of TiO_2 and highfield-strength elements(HFSEs, e.g. Nb, Ta, Zr, Hf), and higher Ba/Th, U/Th ratios than the Kermadec Arc to the south. Some of the Kermadec lavas show the highest values of Th/Nb ratio. We suggest that the northern Tonga arc with a higher subduction rate has been influenced by a stronger role of subductionreleased fluid, which results in stronger large-ion-lithophile elements(LILEs) and relatively weaker HFSEs contribution. It is interpreted that faster subduction rate tend to create a cooler subduction zone, leading to stronger dehydration subduction slab contribution with, thus, higher LILE/HFSE ratios of arc lavas. The conclusion contributes to a better understanding of arc magmatism, and ultimately the long-term chemical differentiation of the Earth. More supplementary geochemical data along Tonga-Kermadec arc and tests in other arcs are needed.

Ionospheric disturbance analysis of the January 15,2022 Tonga eruption based on GPS data

Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha’apai climactic eruption on January 15,2022,released enormous energy that affected the ionosphere over the Pacific Rim.We analyzed ionospheric disturbance following volcanic eruptions using near-field(<1000 km),regional(1000–5000 km),and far-field(5000–12000 km) global positioning system(GPS) observations.The results indicate that the near-field ionospheric perturbation that occurred 8–15 min after the cataclysmic eruption was mainly derived from the shock wave(~1000 m/s) generated by the blast,while the low-frequency branch with long-distance propagation characteristics over the regional and the far-field was mainly associated with atmospheric Lamb waves(~330 m/s).Moreover,the amplitude of disturbance and background total electron content(TEC) are related proportionally.The intensity of the volcanic eruption and the background ionospheric conditions determine the magnitude of ionospheric responses.TEC perturbations were invisible on the reference days.Furthermore,the source location and onset time were calculated using the ray tracing technique,which confirms that the Tonga event triggered the ionospheric anomaly beyond the crater.Finally,the change in the frequency of the perturbations coincided with the arrival of the initial tsunami,implying the generation of a meteotsunami.

Plumbing System of Hunga Tonga Hunga Ha'apai Volcano

The Hunga Tonga Hunga Ha’apai submarine volcano has experienced repeated eruptions in the latest decades.The recent one,in January 2022,released an enormous amount of energy inducing global perturbations,as tsunamis and atmospheric waves.The structure of the volcano is poorly understood,especially its internal structure.Deep-seated magmatic connections are difficult to define or visualize.We use a high-resolution gravity data set obtained via satellite to calculate the Bouguer anomaly over its structure,to perform a preliminary exploration of its interior.Executing 3D gravity inversions,we find a complex plumbing system with various exhaust trajectories and multiple surface pockets of low-density material within the volcanic edifice;some appear to be associated with ring fractures.This is in line with the report of the 2009 eruption,described as beginning from multiple vents.We found no signs of a magma chamber within 6 km depth,although several volcanic conduits are identified from such depth to the surface.Density variations occur within a plumbing conduit or may vary from one conduit to another in the same volcano.These models yield quantitative estimates for areas of magma-water interaction,constituting a baseline to compare with structural changes to be induced in future eruptions.

基于GPS TEC的2022年1月15日汤加火山喷发激起的电离层行扰分析

2022年1月15日南太平洋汤加海底火山发生剧烈喷发,是近30年来最大规模的火山爆发,产生的强烈大气波动为开展火山喷发电离层扰动研究提供了难得的机会。本文利用GPS数据探测火山附近、新西兰、澳大利亚和中国地区的电离层扰动,从波形、频率、传播速度和时空分布等角度分析汤加火山喷发电离层行扰(TIDs)的特征,并利用电离层测高站、海平面监测站和大气压监测站的观测数据进一步验证TIDs的传播特征。研究结果发现,汤加火山喷发在其附近区域、新西兰、澳大利亚和中国地区引起了3类TIDs。在火山附近东、西、南、北方向上均探测到第一类TIDs, TIDs的传播速度为617~972 m/s,该类TIDs极有可能由火山喷发产生的声波引起。汤加火山喷发仅在火山附近东、西方向引起第二类TIDs,其传播速度分别为472 m/s和418 m/s,可能由声波传播过程中衍生的声重力波或者混合波引起,形成机理有待进一步研究。汤加火山喷发在新西兰、澳大利亚和中国地区引发了第三类TIDs,其传播速度为328~352 m/s,该类TIDs与Lamb波密切相关。

Potential Impact of Tonga Volcano Eruption on Global Mean Surface Air Temperature

The undersea volcano,located in the South Pacific island nation of Tonga,violently erupted from 14 to 15 January 2022.The Tonga volcano eruption has aroused extensive discussion in the climate change field.Some climatologists believe that this event will cause little effect on global climate change while others insist that it will trigger“the year without a summer”as the Tambora eruption did in 1815.How will the Tonga volcano eruption affect global climate change?Based on the indices of past volcanic eruptions and the eruption data of El Chichón volcano in 1982,we use a simplified radiation equilibrium model to quantify the stratospheric aerosol radiative forcing and the change in global mean surface air temperature(Ts)caused by the Tonga volcano eruption.The results show that the global average Ts will decrease by about 0.0315-0.1118℃in the next 1-2 years.The Tonga eruption will slightly slow down the global warming in a short period of time,but it will not change the global warming trend in the long term.In addition,we propose a generalized approach for estimating the impact of future volcanic eruption on global mean T_(s).

《国际中文教育中文水平等级标准》与海外国别中文教学大纲的对接——以太平洋岛国汤加为例

随着区域国别中文教育与传播研究的兴起,以及越来越多的国家将中文纳入本国国民教育体系,包括中文教学大纲本土化在内的国别中文教育本土化发展愈发受到关注。《国际中文教育中文水平等级标准》的发布为世界各地的中文教育提供了全方位、多维度的重要参考,本文以汤加《中文教学大纲》为例,从“引”与“融”两个方面探讨二者对接的可行性及实现路径,是一次实践层面的有益尝试,既可为《等级标准》的本土化应用提供一个具体案例,也可为其他太平洋岛国乃至更多国家制定或修订中文教学大纲提供借鉴。

2022汤加海底火山活动的测高海面观测异常分析

2022年1月14日—2022年1月15日,汤加海底火山发生剧烈喷发并造成全球性海啸,引起了国际广泛关注。针对汤加火山喷发引起的海洋环境异常综合观测,本文提出了利用Jason-3测高卫星数据研究火山喷发对海洋环境的短期和长期影响。针对短期影响,利用距离火山最近的弧段186的重复轨道,对比不同时间观测值,分析火山喷发时期海平面变化、有效波高和电离层总电子含量(TEC)异常。结果表明:卫星测高可观测到火山喷发引起的海面异常。火山喷发期间:海平面产生短期变化,原因可能与火山活动引起的波浪、海洋环境变化和海底地形变化有关;火山喷发引起部分海域有效波高显著增加,弧段186区域电离层TEC明显降低。针对长期影响,构建了研究区域内2016年2月—2023年2月共7年区域平均海面观测时间序列,并采用小波变换、奇异谱分析方法探测时间序列中的异常扰动,分析其与火山活动的关系,从而推断火山喷发活动对海洋环境的长期影响。结果表明:火山喷发可能会对海平面变化产生长期影响,海平面变化分布与俯冲带位置相关,其影响还与EI Nino和La Nina事件产生的影响耦合,需要更多资料进一步分析;另外,汤加火山喷发对研究海域内的平均有效波高和电离层TEC分布长期影响较小。

Detection of the Lehmann discontinuity beneath Tonga with short-period waveform data from Hi-net

The undulation and characteristics of the Lehmann discontinuity at the base of the Low Velocity Zone in the upper mantle are significant for understanding the coupling between the lithosphere and asthenosphere, and corresponding geodynamic processes. Vertical waveform data from six earthquakes with focal depths between 75 and 150 km and magnitudes Mb 5.0–6.0 since 2004 were collected from the short-period Hi-net array. Selected waveform data were processed for each event network pair using the Nth-root slant stack method to retrieve the SdP conversion phases from the possible 220 km(Lehmann) discontinuity. The conversion points related to the SdP phases show that there is a clear and flat velocity interface around 230 km, suggesting that there is a sinking of the Lehmann discontinuity beneath Tonga with no obvious undulation. The 230 km depth of the Lehmann discontinuity in this location could be explained by an hypothesis of transition in the deformation mechanism from dislocation creep to diffusion creep.

南太平洋典型岛国海洋生态环境状况及其对汤加火山爆发的响应

南太平洋岛国大多四面环海且国土面积狭小,多为生态环境脆弱区。基于此,本文利用多源卫星数据,对瑙鲁、帕劳、图瓦卢、马绍尔群岛四国的海洋生态环境进行监测,基于长时间序列遥感结果的回溯,分析了其时空变化,并对比分析了汤加火山爆发前后,各国生态环境是否发生显著变化。结果显示:1)在气候态时空分布上,南太平洋岛屿国家周边海域海表温度和透明度一直维持在较高水平,叶绿素和净初级生产力则随离岸距离增加快速下降;2)升温、酸化和海平面升高是四个岛屿国家周边海域面临的共同问题;3)汤加火山的爆发对于南太平洋四岛国的沿岸悬浮物质量浓度、海表温度等无明显影响;4)火山爆发前半个月海岛地表温度以及周边海域悬浮物质量浓度异常升高的现象对利用遥感手段进行灾害预警预报具有启示作用。

The formation of explosive volcanos at the circum-Pacific convergent margin during the last century

The circum-Pacific convergent margin is known as"the Ring of Fire",with abundant volcano eruptions.Large eruptions are rare but very disastrous.It remains obscure how are large explosive volcanos formed and where are the danger zones.Three largest eruptions since 1900,the Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha’apai,the Mt.Pinatubo,and the Novarupta were found to be associated with subductions of volatile-rich sediments and located close to slab windows.Among them,the Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha’apai is close to subducting seamount chains;the Mt.Pinatubo is right next to subducting fossil ridges.Both seamount chains and fossil ridges have water depths much shallower than the carbonate compensation depths(CCD)in the Pacific Ocean.Seismic image shows that a seamount is subducting towards the Novarupta volcano.Subduction of volatile-rich sediments and a slab window nearby are the two most important favorable conditions for catastrophic eruptions.Slab windows expose the mantle wedge to the hot asthenosphere,which increases the temperature and dramatically promotes the partial melting of the carbonate-fluxed domains,forming volatile-rich magmas that powered explosive eruptions.

Influence of Volcanic Activity on Weather and Climate Changes

This paper examines possible connections between volcanic eruptions and their consequences on the weather. Gas emissions, such as CO2 and SO2, are vital in the troposphere and change temperatures on Earth’s surface. The water vapor discharges can be moved for three atmospheric layers creating extra atmospheric rivers and disrupting the Polar vortex. All those deviations will bring consequences to the weather. It depends on the intensity, the emission type, the kind of volcano, and the location. Then, eruptions can change the atmospheric layers with sudden fluctuations unexpected for the season.

汤加火山喷发SO_(2)全球传输扩散态势模拟研究

针对2022年1月汤加火山喷发SO_(2)全球扩散态势,采用拉格朗日粒子扩散模式(FLEXPART),基于卫星监测信息对SO_(2)源项进行评估和设计,在此基础上开展数值模拟(截至2022年2月20日).结果表明,火山喷发初期模式对SO_(2)南北扩散范围模拟偏窄,但随着时间演变与观测呈现逐渐吻合趋势;SO_(2)主体位于南半球,向西传输区域主要位于0~30°S纬度带,最大传输速度约22.5°/d,在研究时段跨赤道传输作用弱,对北半球和我国影响小;SO_(2)在西向传输过程中总体保持前高后低倾斜态势,传输最快高度和向上扩散最大高度分别位于27km和31km左右;截至2月20日,SO_(2)累积地面沉降已扩展至60°N以南全球大部分区域,主要区域位于0~50°S纬度带,沉降最强地区位于澳大利亚东部、汤加火山西北部和南美洲南部.研究结果可为汤加火山气候效应评估提供数据支撑和思路借鉴.

汤加火山喷发对不同区域背景噪声的影响

当地时间2022年1月15日汤加Hunga Tonga-HungaHa’apai火山发生剧烈喷发,引发了MS 5.8地震和海啸。为了研究汤加火山喷发对全球范围内台站背景噪声的影响,在全球范围内选取2022年1月1—20日震中距0°—150°的14个宽频带地震台站进行功率谱密度分析、0°—60°的7个地震台站进行极化分析。通过分析各地震台站噪声功率谱密度及极化分析结果后发现:虽然此次汤加火山喷发引起了全球范围的海啸波,但是除了震中距120°范围内地震台站10—30 s周期的PSD值在火山地震发生后有明显变化外,其他地震台站不同周期的PSD值变化与汤加火山喷发均无相关性。汤加火山喷发没有改变1—30 s周期的背景噪声源区,各台站的背景噪声来源方向较稳定,但不同频段的背景噪声来源有一定的差异性。

汤加—克马德克俯冲带现今非均匀应力场特征及其动力学意义

汤加—克马德克俯冲带是太平洋板块向澳大利亚板块俯冲碰撞的动力作用区,是全球俯冲带动力学研究的热点区域.本研究基于EHB地震目录,对汤加—克马德克俯冲带（18.5°S—28.5°S）区域进行平面拟合,得到该范围内俯冲带走向约为196°,倾角约为48°;利用该俯冲带研究区域内Global CMT目录,对不同位置、不同深度进行区域应力张量反演,得到汤加—克马德克俯冲带研究区内精细的应力图像.结果显示：（1）俯冲带浅部（60-300km）应力结构非均匀特征明显,主应力轴倾伏角变化多样,并且最大主压应力轴方位在24°S左右发生明显偏转,我们推测这可能与洋底构造路易斯维尔海链俯冲有关;（2）中部（300-500km）最大主压、主张应力轴由北向南逐渐发生偏转,这可能与由北向南流动的地幔流对俯冲板片产生推挤作用有关,并且这种推挤作用向南逐渐减弱;（3）深部（500-700km）最大主压应力轴沿俯冲方向分布;（4）本文的结果还发现了主俯冲带深部西侧＂偏移＂板片与主俯冲带应力结构不同,表明＂偏移＂板片与主俯冲带是分离的.

地震前后电离层截止频率处电场频谱强度变化分析--以2006年汤加MW8.0地震为例

以汤加MW8.0地震为例,着重分析了DEMETER卫星记录中截止频率附近电磁场频谱在震前的异常演化特征.根据地震前后该区域3个月的数据对比,发现电场频谱增强与地震孕育的关系很不明显.而长时间、大范围的电场频谱减弱现象可能更值得关注,白天和夜间的电场频谱显示同一特征.2006年夏秋季节38次6级以上强震短期异常的统计平均结果显示,白天的电场频谱在震前24小时距离震中2 000 km左右可能有一定增强,达到背景值的3倍均方差.但其它时段多以下降为主,而夜间无论震前震后比较明显的超过3σ的异常均以下降为主.最后讨论了地震-电离层异常孕育耦合机理.

利用DEMETER卫星LANGMIUR探针观测数据研究强震前的电离层扰动

文中介绍了Langmiur探针的观测原理,并利用电子浓度(Ne)和电子温度(Te)数据研究了2006年5月3日MW7.9汤加地震和2006年12月16日MW7.1台湾地震。结果发现汤加地震前2～5d电子浓度连续4d降低,电子温度变化不明显。台湾地震前后电子浓度的变化不明显,但电子温度在地震当天及后续3d出现了低值。目前没有直接的证据表明这些变化是由地震活动引发的,但在数据处理过程中选择了当地22时至次日3时的观测数据,并且剔除了Dst≤-30nT,Kp≥3,AE≥200nT时的记录数据,在一定程度上排除了太阳、地磁等因素引起的电离层异常情况。

西南太平洋劳海盆地质学研究进展

劳海盆是西南太平洋的一个正在活动的边缘海之一,属于相对简单的洋内边缘海盆,一直以来被作为检验板块构造及海底扩张的一个理想地区。劳海盆的熔岩化学及岩石学的研究成果,对评价蛇绿岩套的源区及正常洋中脊背景中的洋壳模型具有非常重要的意义。此外,深入研究劳海盆出露的硫化物矿床的成因对现存于陆地上的古老类似矿床的勘探模型的建立扮演重要的作用。在系统阐述汤加弧-劳海盆系统的地质概况、构造地质学、岩石学及热液矿床研究进展的基础上,指出了劳海盆所存在的一些重要的科学问题,并指明了下一步研究的重点方向。利用2007年我国在执行环球考察第19航次期间所获得的岩石、硫化物样品,开展对劳海盆岩浆-构造-热液成矿系统的综合研究,有利于提高我国对边缘海盆的基础研究水平。