Contrasts of bimodal tropical instability waves(TIWs)-induced wind stress perturbations in the Pacific Ocean among observations,ocean models,and coupled climate models

The coupling between wind stress perturbations and sea surface temperature(SST)perturbations induced by tropical instability waves(TIWs)in the Pacific Ocean has been revealed previously and proven crucial to both the atmosphere and ocean.However,an overlooked fact by previous studies is that the loosely defined“TIWs”actually consist of two modes,including the Yanai wave-based TIW on the equator(hereafter eTIW)and the Rossby wave-based TIW off the equator(hereafter vTIW).Hence,the individual feedbacks of the wind stress to the bimodal TIWs remain unexplored.In this study,individual coupling relationships are established for both eTIW and v TIW,including the relationship between the TIW-induced SST perturbations and two components of wind stress perturbations,and the relationship between the TIW-induced wind stress perturbation divergence(curl)and the downwind(crosswind)TIW-induced SST gradients.Results show that,due to different distributions of eTIW and vTIW,the coupling strength induced by the eTIW is stronger on the equator,and that by the vTIW is stronger off the equator.The results of any of eTIW and vTIW are higher than those of the loosely defined TIWs.We further investigated how well the coupling relationships remained in several widely recognized oceanic general circulation models and fully coupled climate models.However,the coupling relationships cannot be well represented in most numerical models.Finally,we confirmed that higher resolution usually corresponds to more accurate simulation.Therefore,the coupling models established in this study are complementary to previous research and can be used to refine the oceanic and coupled climate models.

Simulating Tropical Instability Waves in the Equatorial Eastern Pacific with a Coupled General Circulation Model

Satellite observations of SSTs have revealed the existence of unstable waves in the equatorial eastern Pacific and Atlantic oceans. These waves have a 20-40-day periodicity with westward phase speeds of 0.4-0.6 m s^-1 and wavelengths of 1000-2000 km during boreal summer and fall. They are generally called tropical instability waves （TIWs）. This study investigates TIWs simulated by a high-resolution coupled atmosphere-ocean general circulation model （AOGCM）. The horizontal resolution of the model is 120 km in the atmosphere, and 30 km longitude by 20 km latitude in the ocean. Model simulations show good agreement with the observed main features associated with TIWs. The results of energetics analysis reveal that barotropic energy conversion is responsible for providing the main energy source for TIWs by extracting energy from the meridional shear of the climatological-mean equatorial currents in the mixed layer. This deeper and northward-extended wave activity appears to gain its energy through baroclinic conversion via buoyancy work, which further contributes to the asymmetric distribution of TIWs. It is estimated that the strong cooling effect induced by equatorial upwelling is partially （-30%-40%） offset by the equatorward heat flux due to TIWs in the eastern tropical Pacific during the seasons when TIWs are active. The atmospheric mixed layer just above the sea surface responds to the waves with enhanced or reduced vertical mixing. Furthermore, the changes in turbulent mixing feed back to sea surface evaporation, favoring the westward propagation of TIWs. The atmosphere to the south of the Equator also responds to TIWs in a similar way, although TIWs are much weaker south of the Equator.

Numerical Simulation of Changes in Tropical Cyclone Intensity Using a Coupled Air-Sea Model

A coupled air-sea model for tropical cyclones （TCs） is constructed by coupling the Pennsylvania State University/National Center for Atmospheric Research mesoscale model （MM5） with the Princeton Ocean Model.Four numerical simulations of tropical cyclone development have been conducted using different configurations of the coupled model on the f-plane.When coupled processes are excluded,a weak initial vortex spins up into a mature symmetric TC that strongly resembles those observed and simulated in prior research.The coupled model reproduces the reduction in sea temperature induced by the TC reasonably well,as well as changes in the minimum central pressure of the TC that result from negative atmosphere-ocean feedbacks.Asymmetric structures are successfully simulated under conditions of uniform environmental flow.The coupled ocean-atmosphere model is suitable for simulating air-sea interactions under TC conditions.The effects of the ocean on the track of the TC and changes in its intensity under uniform environmental flow are also investigated.TC intensity responds nonlinearly to sea surface temperature （SST）.The TC intensification rate becomes smaller once the SST exceeds a certain threshold.Oceanic stratification also influences TC intensity,with stronger stratification responsible for a larger decrease in intensity.The value of oceanic enthalpy is small when the ocean is weakly stratified and large when the ocean is strongly stratified,demonstrating that the oceanic influence on TC intensity results not only from SST distributions but also from stratification.Air-sea interaction has only a slight influence on TC movement in this model.

SIMULATION OF OCEAN RESPONSES TO AN IDEALIZED LANDFALLING TROPICAL CYCLONE USING A COUPLED ATMOSPHERE-WAVE-OCEAN MODELING SYSTEM

Oceanic responses to a hypothetical landfalling tropical cyclone(TC) are studied by using a coupled atmosphere-wave-ocean modeling system(CAWOMS). A set of experiments are conducted to compare the effects of atmosphere-wave-ocean interaction on ocean responses in coastal and deep waters. The results show that in a three-way coupled atmosphere-wave-ocean system, the resonse to a tropical cyclone is considerably different in coastal water and deep water. In a three-way coupled system, air-sea interactions tend to increase coastal storm surge, inundation, significant wave heights and ocean currents in shallow coastal areas as a result of waveenhanced air-sea heat and moisture fluxes. But the change is little in sea surface temperature and mixed-layer structure due to the well-mixed nature in the coastal zone. In contrast, in a three-way coupled system, air-sea interactions enhance sea surface cooling, increase mixed layer depth in deep waters largely due to the tendency of a wave-enhanced TC to induce strong mixing and entrainment in the upper ocean. A stronger TC also strengthens the surface currents and significant wave height in the offshore waters. The inclusion of waves in air-sea interactions fundamentally changes the dynamic and thermodynamic coupling between tropical cyclone and the underlying ocean. In the absence of TC-wave consideration, a negative feedback between the TC and the upper ocean mixed layer results in a weakening of the TC system and a cooling in the offshore upper ocean and therefore reduces coastal storm surge, flooding areas, significant wave height and ocean currents. Only in a TC-waveocean three-way coupled system, air-sea interaction may correspond to a stronger TC due to wave-induced airsea heat and moisture fluxes which compensate the effect of negative feedback between the TC and the upper ocean. In coastal waters, the negative feedback between the TC and the ocean mixed layer is fairly weak. Airsea interaction is dominated by the positive TC-wave feedback. As a result, air-sea interaction increases coastal storm surge, inundation, currents and significant wave height.

对热带不稳定海气相互作用模式的改进

对以前提出的热带海气相互作用模式［１］风应力的参数化作了改进。和以前一样，在这个耦合模式中，滤去了大气和海洋中的重力惯性波，只保留了向西传播的Ｒｏｓｓｂｙ波。但经过海气相互作用后，理论分析指出，在耦合模式中存在着快的和慢的两类波动。快波频率的实部、即其相速度是向西传的，并接近于未经海气相互作用时大气中Ｒｏｓｓｂｙ波的频率；而慢波的性质和以前的结果类似，短波部分是向西传的，长波部分向东传，东传波的临界波数随海气相互作用增强向短波部分位移。与以前结果不同的是，除一个慢波不稳定增长外，另一个快波在长波部分也是不稳定增长的。海气相互作用越强，不稳定增长率和不稳定波所出现的波段范围越大。另外，本文的研究结果还指出，高频和低频不稳定波产生的物理条件是不一样的。

Relationships between the East Asian-Western North Pacific Monsoon and ENSO Simulated by FGOALS-s2

The relationships between ENSO and the East Asian-western North Pacific monsoon simulated by the Flexible Global Ocean-Atmosphere-Land System model, Spectral Version 2 （FGOALS-s2）, a state-of-the-art coupled general circulation model （CGCM）, are evaluated. For E1 Nino developing summers, FGOALS-s2 reproduces the anomalous cyclone over the western North Pacific （WNP） and associated negative precipita- tion anomalies in situ. In the observation, the anomalous cyclone is transformed to an anomalous anticyclone over the WNP （WNPAC） during E1 Nifio mature winters. The model reproduces the WNPAC and associated positive precipitation anomalies over southeastern China during winter. However, the model fails to simu- late the asymmetry of the wintertime circulation anomalies over the WNP between E1 Nifio and La Nifia. The simulated anomalous cyclone over the WNP （WNPC） associated with La Nifia is generally symmetric about the WNPAC associated with E1 Nifio, rather than shifted westward as that in the observation. The discrepancy can partially explain why simulated La Nifia events decay much faster than observed. In the observation, the WNPAC maintains throughout the E1 Nifio decaying summer under the combined effects of local forcing of the WNP cold sea surface temperature anomaly （SSTA） and remote forcing from basin- wide warming in the tropical Indian Ocean. FGOALS-s2 captures the two mechanisms and reproduces the WNPAC throughout the summer. However, owing to biases in the mean state, the precipitation anomalies over East Asia, especially those of the Meiyu rain belt, are much weaker than that in the observation.