Experimental study on the mechanical and failure behaviors of deep rock subjected to true triaxial stress:A review

It has become an inevitable trend of human development to seek resources from the deep underground.However,rock encountered in deep underground engineering is usually in an anisotropic stress state(σ_(1)>σ>σ_(3))due to the influences of geological structures and engineering disturbances.It is therefore essential to study the mechanical,seepage,and dynamic disaster behaviors of deep rock under true triaxial stress to ensure the safe operation of deep rock engineering and the efficient exploitation of deep resources.In recent years,experimental techniques and research on true triaxial rock mechanics have achieved fruitful results that have promoted the rapid development of deep rock mechanics;thus,it is necessary to systematically review and summarize these developments.This work first introduced several typical true triaxial testing apparatus and then reviewed the corresponding research progress on rock deformation,strength,failure mode,brittleness,and energy as well as the 3D volumetric fracturing(dynamic disaster)properties of deep rocks under true triaxial stress.Then,several commonly used true triaxial rock strength criteria and their applicability,the permeability characteristics and mathematical models of deep reservoir rocks,and the disaster-causing processes and mechanisms of disturbed volumetric fracturing(rockburst,compound dynamic disasters)in deep rock engineering were described.This work may provide an essential reference for addressing the true triaxial rock mechanics issues involved in deep rock engineering,especially regarding the stability of surrounding rock at depth,disaster prevention and control,and oil and gas exploitation.

Investigation of the influence of intermediate principal stress on the dynamic responses of rocks subjected to true triaxial stress state

Precisely understanding the dynamic mechanical properties and failure modes of rocks subjected to true triaxial stress state(σ1>σ2>σ3,whereσ1,σ2,andσ3 are the major principal stress,intermediate principal stress,and minor principal stress,respectively)is essential to the safety of underground engineering.However,in the laboratory,it is difficult to maintain the constant true triaxial stress state of rocks during the dynamic testing process.Herein,a numerical servo triaxial Hopkinson bar(NSTHB)was developed to study the dynamic responses of rocks confronted with a true triaxial stress state,in which lateral stresses can maintain constant.The results indicate that the dynamic strength and elastic modulus of rocks increase with the rise of intermediate principal stressσ2,while the dynamic elastic modulus is independent of the dynamic strain rate.Simulated acoustic emission distributions indicate that the intermediate principal stressσ2 dramatically affects dynamic failure modes of triaxial confined rocks.Asσ2 increases,the failure pattern switches from a single diagonal shear zone into two parallel shear zones with a small slant.Moreover,a recent triaxial Hopkinson bar experimental system using three bar pairs is also numerically established,and the measuring discrepancies are identified between the two numerical bar systems.The proposed NSTHB system provides a controllable tool for studying the dynamic triaxial behavior of rocks.

3D morphology and formation mechanism of fractures developed by true triaxial stress

As main part of underground rock mass,the three-dimensional(3D)morphology of natural fractures plays an important role in rock mass stability.Based on previous studies on 3D morphology,this study probes into the law and mechanism regarding the influence of the confining pressure constraints on 3D morphological features of natural fractures.First,fracture surfaces were obtained by true triaxial compression test and 3D laser scanning.Then 3D morphological parameters of fractures were calculated by using Grasselli’s model.The results show that the failure mode of granites developed by true triaxial stress can be categorized into tension failure and shear failure.Based on the spatial position of fractures,they can be divided into tension fracture surface,S-1 shear fracture surface,and S-2 shear fracture surface.Micro-failure of the tension fracture surface is dominated by mainly intergranular fracture;the maximum height of asperities on the fracture surface and the 3D roughness of fracture surfaces are influenced by σ_(3) only and they are greater than those of shear fracture surfaces,a lower overall uniformity than tension fracture surface.S-1 shear fracture surface and S-2 shear fracture surface are dominated by intragranular and intergranular coupling fracture.The maximum height of asperities on the fracture surface and 3D roughness of fracture surface are affected by σ_(1),σ_(2),and σ_(3).With the increase of σ_(2) or σ_(3),the cutting off of asperities on the fracture surface becomes more common,the maximum height of asperities and 3D roughness of fracture surface further decrease,and the overall uniformity gets further improved.The experimental results are favorable for selecting technical parameters of enhanced geothermal development and the safety of underground mine engineering.

New artificial neural networks for true triaxial stress state analysis and demonstration of intermediate principal stress effects on intact rock strength

Simulations are conducted using five new artificial neural networks developed herein to demonstrate and investigate the behavior of rock material under polyaxial loading. The effects of the intermediate principal stress on the intact rock strength are investigated and compared with laboratory results from the literature. To normalize differences in laboratory testing conditions, the stress state is used as the objective parameter in the artificial neural network model predictions. The variations of major principal stress of rock material with intermediate principal stress, minor principal stress and stress state are investigated. The artificial neural network simulations show that for the rock types examined, none were independent of intermediate principal stress effects. In addition, the results of the artificial neural network models, in general agreement with observations made by others, show （a） a general trend of strength increasing and reaching a peak at some intermediate stress state factor, followed by a decline in strength for most rock types; （b） a post-peak strength behavior dependent on the minor principal stress, with respect to rock type; （c） sensitivity to the stress state, and to the interaction between the stress state and uniaxial compressive strength of the test data by the artificial neural networks models （two-way analysis of variance; 95% confidence interval）. Artificial neural network modeling, a self-learning approach to polyaxial stress simulation, can thus complement the commonly observed difficult task of conducting true triaxial laboratory tests, and/or other methods that attempt to improve two-dimensional （2D） failure criteria by incorporating intermediate principal stress effects.

Experimental investigation of stress unloading effects on rock damage and confining pressure-dependent crack initiation stress of porous sandstone under true triaxial stress environments

This study investigates the impact of intermediate(σ_(2))and minimum(σ_(3))principal stress unloading on damage behavior and the confining pressure influence on crack initiation stress(σci)in true triaxial stress conditions,utilizing large-scale cubic samples.Two distinct true triaxial tests were executed,examining the effects of confining stress(σ_(2)andσ_(3))unloading on porous sandstone damage and the correlation between confining stress andσci.Acoustic emission(AE)parameters,signal characteristics,and wave velocity variations were utilized to elucidate cracking mechanisms and damage development in the samples.Unloading tests reveal consistent ve-locities in three orthogonal directions(V_(11),V_(22),and V_(33))during the initial two unloading stages.In the subse-quent three stages,confining stress unloading leads to a decrease in wave velocity in the corresponding direction,while velocities in the other two directions remain nearly constant.Notably,σ_(2)unloading generates higher amplitude AE signals compared toσ_(3)unloading,with over 70%of the micro-cracks categorized as tensile.In the incremental loading tests,σ_(ci) is found to be contingent on confining pressure,withσ_(2)playing a crucial role.Duringσ_(1) loading,V_(33) decreases,indicating additional crack formation;conversely,σ_(3)loading results in V33 increase,signifying the continuous closure of existing cracks.Limitations of the experiments are summarized and prospects in this domain are outlined.

Failure properties of rocks in true triaxial unloading compressive test

Slabbing failure often occurs in the surround rock near a deep underground excavation. The mechanism of slabbing failure is still unclear. In order to reveal the influence of the intermediate principal stress （σ2） on slabbing failure, true triaxial unloading compressive test was carried out based on the stress path of the underground engineering excavation, i.e., unloading the minimum principal stress （σ3）, keeping σ2, increasing the maximum principal stress （σ1）. The initiation and the propagation of slabbing fracture in rock specimens were identified by examining the acoustic emission （AE） and the infrared radiation characterization. The test results show that the failure modes of the granite and red sandstone specimens are changed from shear to slabbing with the increase of σ2. The AE characteristic of rock specimen under low σ2 is swarm type which is the main shock type under high σ2. The infrared radiation properties of rock specimen under different σ2 are also different. The temperature change area is just along the shear fracture such as the uniaxial compression. With the increase of σ2, the temperature change area is planar of rock specimen which proofs that the failure mode of rock specimen turns into slabbing.

Dilatancy equation of rockfill material under the true triaxial stress condition

Rockfill material is widely used for construction of high rockfill dam due to its facility,economical cost,high strength and effective aseismatic property.It is provoked profoundly to propose a suitable constitutive model for a better application of this material.The dilatancy equation of rockfill material plays a significant role in the constitutive model.For the sake of simplicity,a dilatancy equation is established by the linear least square method on the basis of the rearranged data of rockfill material in the true triaxial tests.Based on the fact that the rearranged data at different initial confining pressures are aligned in a narrow band,the dilatancy behavior of rockfill material is independent of the initial confining pressure.However,different from the initial confining pressure,both the intermediate principal stress ratio and the specimen density exhibit a remarkable influence on the dilatancy behaviors of rockfill material.Furthermore,the predictions of the proposed dilatancy equation are in a good agreement with the rearranged test data of rockfill material at different specimen densities and stress paths.

An anisotropic constitutive model of geomaterials based on true triaxial testing and its application

Series of testing on coarse grained soils were carried out with a true triaxial testing apparatus. The loads were applied from the major principal and minor principal directions, respectively, to simulate the construction and water impounding process of a rock fill dam. The stress and strain relationships induced by the different loading methods were investigated. A remarkable stress-induced anisotropy under complex stress state was observed. Contrary to popular assumptions in traditional numerical analysis and constitutive models, it was found that different elastic modulus and Poisson ratio exist in different principal directions in rock fill dams. From the testing results, an anisotropic constitutive model based on Duncan-Chang nonlinear model is presented to overcome the limitations of axi-symmetric assumptions in conventional triaxial experiments and constitutive models. Both models were then applied in FEM analysis of an under-construction earth core high rock soil filled dam with the focus on hydraulic fracturing. The study reveals the major biases that exist when numerical analysis and constitutive models do not give serious consideration to the intermediate principal stress and anisotropy effects in soil rock built structures.

重塑黄土的往返加卸载真三轴试验研究

针对不同应力路径往返加卸载条件下黄土累积塑性应变发展特性,以重塑黄土为研究对象,利用真三轴仪开展不同应力路径的往返加卸载试验研究,探究不同应力路径、应力幅值下黄土的循环应力时程曲线、滞回曲线、骨干曲线及累积塑性应变曲线的影响规律。揭示了应力路径对重塑黄土力学特性的影响,描述了各主应力与中主应力比b和应力幅值的相关性,提出了重塑黄土的滞回曲线近似呈椭圆形,长轴斜率随中主应力比b值的增大而增大,随应力幅值的增大而减小;随着中主应力比b值的增大,循环应力-应变骨干曲线随之硬化,累积塑性应变曲线依次降低,且累积塑性应变发展更早的进入平缓阶段,为解决相关黄土工程问题提供了参考。

真三轴煤岩体水压裂缝扩展行为教学实验设计

在自主研发真三轴煤岩体压裂渗流实验系统基础上,设计了一套真三轴煤岩体水力压裂实验方法。该实验方法从基本理论出发,结合工程实际设计实验方案,在实现数据采集、处理操作简单化的同时,实现了理论与实践的结合。该实验系统可根据工程实际地应力数据设计实验室真三轴水力压裂实验应力状态参数,探讨压裂液恒流、恒压及变排量注入方式对注入压力-时间曲线、水压裂缝形态的影响机制。通过本实验教学可以让学生进一步了解矿井下地应力场分布规律。同时,该实验系统可拓展性较强,能够激发学生的主观创新思维。

真三轴应力条件下冻结钙质黏土能量特征及影响因素分析

为深入探讨在真三轴应力路径及多因素交互作用条件下冻结钙质黏土的能量特征及其影响程度,本研究借助ZSZ-2000型真三轴冻土试验平台,采用正交试验的设计方法,开展冻结钙质黏土真三轴压缩试验研究。研究结果揭示:在初始压密阶段及线弹性阶段,冻结钙质黏土的输入能相对较低,增长速率缓慢;随着加载过程的深入,输入能逐步增加,其增长速率亦随之提高;至破坏阶段,输入能-等效应力曲线呈现出明显的跃升特征,此时输入能的急剧上升,说明输入能曲线斜率的变化是冻结钙质黏土内部裂纹非稳定发展的微观表现。同时,输入能曲线的突然急升亦指示了失稳破坏的发生。进一步通过极差分析及AHP层次分析可得一致的输入能影响因素优劣次序:含水率w、中主应力系数b、温度T、含盐量φ、围压σ3。含水率对输入能的负向影响显著,温度和中主应力系数b对输入能有着显著的正向影响关系,随着中主应力系数b值的增加,其对冻结试样输入能的影响程度呈减弱的趋势且存在一个最优中主应力系数b=0.33使试样输入能增幅达到最大。

真三轴单面卸荷条件下中间主应力对深埋洞室岩爆影响特征

岩爆灾害已成为国内外深埋洞室建设的重大安全隐患。利用新型真三轴岩爆试验系统,开展了不同中间主应力下“单面侧向卸荷-三向五面受力-竖向持续加载”的室内物理模拟试验,对比分析了不同中间主应力下岩样的弹射破坏过程、破坏形态特征、声发射特性、碎块特征以及弹射动能等变化规律;基于三维离散元理论和多晶建模技术(随机生成Voronoi矿物晶粒),研究了真三轴单面卸荷条件下岩爆“孕育—发生—发展—破坏”全过程及能量演化特征。研究结果表明:不同中间主应力下岩爆弹射破坏过程可概括为颗粒局部弹射、岩石劈裂成板、板折断裂成块及块片全面弹射;其中,岩石劈裂成板是岩爆孕育过程中必然经历的破坏现象。岩样临空面破坏形态具有相似的多元分区破坏特征,即邻近临空面区域产生以张拉破坏为主的劈裂裂缝,远离临空面区域产生以剪切破坏为主的贯穿性斜裂缝。声发射撞击数演化过程可分为相对平稳阶段、快速上升阶段、整体破坏阶段及平静期阶段。随着中间主应力的不断增大,碎块的弹射动能呈增大的变化趋势。岩爆碎块多以粗粒、中粒与细粒碎块为主,且随中间主应力的增加,微粒碎块质量基本不变,细粒、中粒与粗粒碎块质量则呈平稳增加的趋势。利用考虑颗粒矿物成分的晶体尺度精细仿真模型(CSFM)模拟了岩爆“孕育—发生—发展—破坏”全过程,获得了岩样的应力-应变曲线,其变化趋势与室内试验测试结果基本一致且曲线吻合度较好。弹性应变能的演化曲线大致可分为早期增长速率递增阶段、近似线性增长阶段、屈服平台期间增长速率递减阶段及峰后急剧下降阶段。

考虑中间主应力效应的修正Hoek-Brown真三轴强度准则

为改善Hoek-Brown强度准则未考虑中间主应力对岩石强度的影响,通过岩石真三轴试验结果分析了岩石强度的演化规律,引入中间主应力系数,量化分析主应力系数对岩石真三轴强度的影响,考虑Hoek-Brown强度准则中的参数和岩石应力水平间的关联性,提出了基于拉格朗日插值方法的修正岩石真三轴Hoek-Brown强度准则,分析了其空间包络特征。最后,利用7种岩石的真三轴试验数据与其它3种真三轴强度准则进行最优拟合误差分析,探讨了修正强度准则的合理性。研究结果表明:岩石强度随着最小主应力的增加逐渐增大,随着中间主应力的增加则呈现先增大后减小的变化规律,表现出显著的区间效应;修正强度准则不仅能够继承Hoek-Brown强度准则在子午面上的非线性优点,且能够表征岩石强度在应力空间中的基本特性;线性和非线性插值形式的修正强度准则空间包络面分别为非等边的六棱锥面以及能够满足拉压子午面区间连续光滑要求的圆锥面;修正强度准则能够较好地预测岩石真三轴试验强度,较为合理地反映中间主应力对岩石强度的影响;相比于线性插值形式强度准则,二次插值形式强度准则能够提高岩石强度的预测精度1.2~2.0倍;相较于其他真三轴强度准则,修正强度准则对不同硬脆性岩石的真三轴试验结果均具有良好的强度预测精度,体现了修正强度准则的适用性和可靠性。

中间主应力系数对页岩气渗流特性及气体滑脱效应的影响

页岩气的渗流特性极大地影响着采收率,但对页岩气渗流特性的研究大多是在不同围压条件下开展的,其结果尚不能揭示中间主应力对渗透率的影响。因此,选用涪陵页岩气区块志留系龙马溪组页岩露头立方体岩石试件,采用自主研发的“多功能真三轴流固耦合试验系统”开展了页岩真三轴流固耦合试验,利用Klinkenberg方程拟合试验数据分析不同中间主应力系数对页岩气渗流特性和气体滑脱效应的影响。试验结果表明:①当偏应力较小时,中间主应力对页岩渗透率演化的影响较小,而当偏应力增加时,其影响越大且越不可忽略;②滑脱系数—固有渗透率的关系式与试验数据的拟合结果显示二者具有良好的相关性,可用于对同区块页岩滑脱系数的预测;③当偏应力小于或等于35 MPa时,滑脱效应贡献率保持在65%以上,表明此时滑脱效应主导着页岩中气体的渗流。

页岩气藏暂堵转向压裂裂缝扩展规律模拟

暂堵转向压裂技术是提高非常规油气产能的重要方法之一,在非常规油气藏储层改造中已经得到了广泛应用。为进一步认识威远地区页岩气藏暂堵转向压裂裂缝扩展特征,文中通过真三轴大物模实验研究了暂堵转向压裂压力响应与岩样破裂形态,验证了暂堵产生复杂缝网结构的可行性,明确了在不同应力差条件下的暂堵后裂缝起裂规律;同时采用ABAQUS软件黏结单元模拟裂缝的起裂与扩展,研究了不同水平应力差、不同偏转角下暂堵转向压裂裂缝扩展规律。研究结果表明:水平应力差对初次裂缝与暂堵转向裂缝的开启与扩展均具有显著的影响,水平应力差越小时,一次和二次压裂时岩样的破裂压力就越大,岩样越不容易被压碎。裂缝扩展阻力的不断增加,提升了缝内净压力与裂缝宽度;相交缝二次扩展后开启的新裂缝与一次压裂夹角越小,新裂缝扩展效果越好。该研究对威远地区现场压裂和缝网形态预测具有一定的理论指导和借鉴意义。

含层理砂岩真三轴条件下力学特性研究

为了研究层状砂岩的力学特性与各向异性特征,开展了不同层理倾角与不同中间主应力下的砂岩力学试验。对7种不同倾角(0。、15。、30。、45。、60。、75。、90。)的砂岩进行了3个不同中间主应力水平(10、100、160 MPa)的真三轴试验研究,探讨了层理面倾角对砂岩变形、强度和破坏模式的影响。结果表明,随着中间主应力的增加,砂岩的各向异性逐渐减弱,并趋于各向同性;在高中间主应力的条件下,杨氏模量和破坏角均随各向异性角的增加逐渐增大;峰值强度也受到中间主应力和层面倾角耦合作用的影响;在中间主应力较低的条件下,峰值强度表现出典型的U型变化,随着中间主应力的增加,U型曲线逐渐变得平坦。该研究结果对于指导深埋硬岩工程的设计和施工具有一定的参考意义。

饱和砂土不同应力路径下强度及剪胀真三轴试验研究

采用全自动加载真三轴仪对饱和砂土在大主应力方向与沉积方向平行的条件下,在不同固结压力(围压)50kPa、100kPa、200kPa条件下,针对不同应力路径b值取0,0.25,0.5,0.75,1进行真三轴固结排水剪切试验。结果表明:大主应变和偏应力、大主应变和应力比、大主应变和有效应力比的关系基本上表现为光滑的硬化型、理想塑性。个别出现软化型的曲线,软化趋势很弱。在剪切过程中,随剪应力逐渐上升,变形模量逐渐上升,剪切强度也逐渐提高。b=1时曲线界于b=0.5~0.75时的曲线之间。中主应力系数在0.75左右时,曲线斜率达到峰值,且是不同中主应力系数曲线族中的最大值。在中主应力系数b处于区间0~0.5时,b值上升,饱和砂土剪胀性表现越来越显著;在b处于区间0.5~1时,剪胀呈现弱化趋势。整体上对比来看,饱和砂土剪胀特性在高围压状态下不同b值的剪胀性差异更加明显。

不同卸载方向下高应力岩石真三轴卸荷力学特性研究

深部岩体开挖过程中,围岩应力场在开挖面附近形成交替分布的应力升高区(加载区)和应力降低区(卸载区),极易引发高应力岩体失稳破坏。尽管目前已有诸多关于岩石加卸载破坏方面的研究,但在复杂真三轴应力路径下岩石加卸载破坏机理的认识仍不充分。针对这一问题,文章以山东玲珑金矿花岗岩立方块试样为研究对象,首先进行了不同侧向应力下真三轴加载破坏试验,并进一步开展了不同卸荷方向下真三轴卸载破坏试验,深入研究了花岗岩试样在复杂真三轴加卸载路径下的强度及破坏特征。试验结果表明:随着中间主应力的增大,真三轴加载条件花岗岩的破坏模式由张拉-剪切复合型破坏转变到张拉破坏,真三轴加载破坏强度先增大后缓慢减小;在相同中间主应力和最小主应力条件下,花岗岩的真三轴卸载破坏强度均小于其加载破坏强度,Mogi强度公式可以很好地拟合卸载最小主应力条件下的真三轴卸载强度。该成果可为深部岩体工程稳定性控制和设计提供重要的理论依据和指导。

深部直墙拱形巷道围岩板裂破坏的试验研究

为了研究深部直墙拱形巷道围岩板裂破坏特征,利用TRW-3000岩石真三轴电液伺服诱变试验机,对含直墙拱形贯穿巷道的立方体花岗岩试样进行了三向不等压加载试验,并借助微型摄像机实时监控围岩破坏情况。试验结果表明,花岗岩直墙拱形巷道围岩产生平行于直墙的板裂化结构,呈明显的拉伸破坏特征。随着板裂破坏沿巷道两侧围岩逐渐向深部发展,最终在围岩两侧距拱底(0.20~0.25)h(h为直墙拱形巷道的高度)处形成对称的V型槽。在相同应力条件下,与花岗岩圆形巷道破坏特征相比,直墙拱形巷道围岩初始破坏应力较高,主要表现为静态破坏,产生的岩片较大,呈细长条状,具有明显的层裂现象;而圆形巷道围岩破坏较为剧烈,属于动态破坏,产生的岩片相对较小,但是两种断面产生的岩片均表现出中间厚两边薄的特征。通过对比不同岩性直墙拱形巷道围岩破坏特征发现,花岗岩的破坏较为剧烈,红砂岩的较弱。对于千枚岩直墙拱形巷道,随着层理角度的增加,围岩的破坏模式从平行于层理面的拉伸破坏转变为平行于层理面的剪切滑移破坏,再到穿越层理面的剪切破坏,最后转化为穿越层理面的拉伸破坏。

致密储层缝内暂堵转向压裂裂缝扩展规律数值模拟

基于损伤力学理论,建立了储层渗流-应力-损伤耦合裂缝扩展数值模型,将模型结果与室内真三轴水力压裂物理模拟实验结果进行了对比,验证了模型的准确性,并基于该模型探讨了压裂液黏度、排量、水平地应力差以及储层岩石非均质性对缝内暂堵转向压裂效果的影响。研究结果表明:(1)储层渗流-应力-损伤耦合裂缝扩展数值模型是联合流体流动控制方程与岩石变形方程形成整体控制方程,通过在初始裂缝扩展路径上某一区域人为设置高强度的岩石物理力学参数和较小的储层渗透率值,实现缝内暂堵的模拟。(2)缝内暂堵转向压裂裂缝扩展模型数值模拟的分支缝数量、主裂缝面积、主裂缝延伸方向等与室内真三轴水力压裂物理模拟实验的结果基本一致,该模型可实现缝内暂堵后基质的破裂与新裂缝扩展模拟,对缝内暂堵转向压裂裂缝扩展情况也具有较好的模拟效果。(3)压裂液的黏度和排量越大,缝内暂堵转向压裂裂缝长度、改造面积及偏转角度均明显增大,且逐渐由单一裂缝向复杂裂缝转变。当水平地应力差小于7.5 MPa时,缝内暂堵转向压裂的效果较好;当水平地应力差为10~15 MPa时,压裂效果变差;当水平地应力差大于15 MPa时,裂缝几乎不偏转;储层非均质性会影响裂缝局部的扩展路径,但对裂缝总体扩展趋势影响甚微。